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This publication is a very significant cooperative effort of the Department of Audiovisual Instruction and the National Society for Programmed Instruction. It is, we believe, a harbinger of future joint activities between our two organizations whose purposes converge in the field of programmed learning.
On Parent's Day, in 1952, B. F. Skinner visited his daughter's fourth grade math class. As he watched the lesson, he became increasingly uncomfortable. Almost every principle of effective teaching that he had studied for more than 20 years was being violated in that classroom. Yet it was a typical class. The teacher showed how to solve the day's problems, then gave the students a worksheet to do. Some children began to work readily while others shifted uncomfortably in their chairs, or raised their hands for help. The teacher went from desk to desk, giving help and feedback. Skinner knew what was needed. Each student should be given a problem tailored precisely to his or her skill level, not to the class average, and every answer needed to be assessed immediately to determine the next step. The task was clearly impossible for one teacher. That afternoon, Skinner set to work on a teaching machine. Today's computers have made the mechanical machine obsolete, but the principles of how to design instruction in steps that lead from a basic level to competent performance are as valid today as they were in the 20th century. This book brings together Skinner's writings on education during the years he was most involved in improving education.
Concerns about the quality of teaching and learning in higher education have given rise to teacher development programs and centers around the world. This book investigates the challenges and complexities of creating instructional development programs for present and future academics. Using case studies from a variety of countries including Estonia, Singapore, the United States and the United Kingdom, it examines issues that are important for higher education researchers as well as higher education managers. The book includes international responses to the need to improve teaching in higher education. It demonstrates many different ways success may be understood, and investigates what factors may influence the results of instructional development. Contributors use these factors to explain program success through theoretical frameworks. This book also provides input for higher-education managers by pointing out how the local context and both institutional and national policy-making may help or hinder the effective preparation of professors for their teaching responsibilities.
This edition of this handbook updates and expands its review of the research, theory, issues and methodology that constitute the field of educational communications and technology. Organized into seven sectors, it profiles and integrates the following elements of this rapidly changing field.
First Published in 2008. Routledge is an imprint of Taylor & Francis, an informa company.