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Though the chemistry of ruthenium has been explored for some one hundred years, very little is as yet known either about the actual ionic species of the element present in such common complexing media as hydrochloric, nitric, and sulfuric acids or about the thermodynamic stabilities, spectra, reaction kinetics, and other properties of those species.
Ion exchange and membrane studies of Ru(IV) in perchloric acid indicate that the charge per atom is +1, the charge per species is +4, and that Ru(IV) is tetrameric. Coulometric, cyclic voltametric and spectrophotometric studies indicate that tetrameric Ru(IV) can be reduced reversibly by two, one-electron processes to species with formal oxidation states of 3.75 and 3.5. Ru(3.5) is reduced reversibly to a transient species of Ru(III) which rapidly converts to a stable polymeric species of Ru(III) that can be reoxidized to Ru(IV) only irreversibly. Stable Ru(III) can be electrochemically reduced to Ru(II).