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During the 1972 IFYGL 'alert' periods, the highly instrumented NOAA/RFF/DC-6 aircraft was used to record the time series of wind, temperature, and water vapor at heights ranging from 18 to 300 m above the surface of Lake Ontario. The aircraft was equipped with a gust probe system, a fast response thermistor, a microwave refractometer (for water vapor measurements), and a downward-pointing IR system; as well as the normal in-flight measurement of standard meteorological parameters. The time series records have been found to display a highly intermittent nature. This is especially the case for evaporation when, in the fall, Polar Continental outbreaks move across the lake. In particular, such an outbreak of cold dry air moved across the lake at 12-15 m s−1 on 9 October 1972. This resulted in the air temperature at 30 m above the lake to drop from 12 to 6 C while the evaporation rate increased to more than 1 cm day−1. This may be compared with the 0.5 cm day−1 normal evaporation observed in the tropics during BOMEX. Furthermore, IR lake surface temperatures show cold regions (~5 C) along the north shore, presumably due to strong upwelling, while the center and south shore regions of the lake were of the order of 12 to 15C. The turbulent, flux quantities of momentum, heat, and water vapor were obtained by the eddy correlation technique and their spectra were determined at several locations over the lake surface for 3-minute sampling lengths. At the aircraft speed of 92 m s−1, this represents a flight path of ~17 km for both along wind and constant fetch patterns. The spectra demonstrate the tendency for the peak value to march to higher wavelengths with increasing height.
ADVANCES IN GEOPHYSICS VOLUME 26.
In order to provide water security in the twenty-first century, there is universal agreement that a continuation of current policies and extrapolation of trends is not an option. Also clear is that from both water supply and development perspectives, the world's arid and semi-arid regions are those currently and potentially experiencing the highest water stresses. One third of the world's land surface is classified as arid or semi-arid, and about half of all countries are directly affected in some way by problems of aridity. The hydrology of arid and semi-arid areas is also known to be substantially different from that in more humid regions. It is therefore essential that investigation methods appropriate to the former are developed and applied, and that strategies for arid and semi-arid region water resources development recognise the principal characteristics of in-situ hydrological processes.
Hydrometeorology presents an introduction to relevant topics in the interdisciplinary fields of hydrology and meteorology. This book is one of the few books aiming to provide a balance between aspects of meteorological and hydrological processes. The transfer of energy and water between the land surface and lower atmosphere within the hydrological cycle is addressed followed by a description of the nature of precipitation, and how it is formed. Forecasting precipitation is reviewed on all scales, and the range of rainfall-runoff models and coastal surge models and forecasts (including tsunamis) which have been, and are being, used are discussed. The mechanisms of snow, ice (glacier, sea and tundra), evaporation and transpiration, how drought occurs and the representation of wind are described. How rainfall (including radar measurements) and river flow information is gathered and analysed (including, frequency analysis, Probable Maximum Precipitation and Flood) are presented. Satellite measurements of precipitation are discussed. Examples of major past floods and droughts are given. Past and future climate change, which is included, underpins the importance of hydro-meteorological processes. The structure of the general circulation of the atmosphere and how it influences weather and climate including the Hadley, Ferrel and Polar cells, the Trade winds and the El Nino, is outlined. Finally, the influence of urban areas on rainfall formation, dealing with urban drainage and air quality are described. Each chapter ends with one or two specific points as appendices, elements discussed in the chapter and a list of sample problems to aid understanding. Readership: This book is aimed at 3rd year undergraduate and postgraduate students on hydrology/hydrometeorology, environmental science and geography courses. Professionals in environmental protection agencies and consultancies will also find the book of great interest. It contains a balance of both the physics and mathematics which underpin such courses and activities.