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Despite the increasing popularity of hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs), few studies have quantified their real-world particle emissions from internal combustion engine (ICE) re-ignition events (RIEVs). RIEVs have been known to occur under unstable combustion conditions which frequently result in particle number emission rates (PNERs) that exceed stabilized engine operation. Tailpipe total PN (5 to 560 nm diameter) emission rates (#/s) from a conventional vehicle (CV) and hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) 2010 Toyota Camry were quantified on a 50 km (32 mi) route over a variety of roadways in Chittenden County, Vermont using the Total On-board Tailpipe Emissions Measurement System (TOTEMS). While HEVs are known to have significant fuel conserving benefits compared to conventional vehicles, less is known about the relative emissions performance of HEVs. This study is the first to characterize RIEVs under a range of real-world driving conditions and to directly compare HEV and CV PNER during driving on different road sections. A total of 28 CV and 33 HEV sampling runs were conducted over an 18-month period under ambient temperatures ranging between -4 and 35 °C. A road classification based upon speed and intersection density divided the route into four different road sections: Freeway, Rural, Urban I and Urban II. Due to the distinct on-off cycling of the HEV ICE, a new operational mode framework (ICE OpMode) was developed to characterize shutdown, off, re-ignition and stabilized HEV ICE operation. Road section was found to affect overall ICE OpMode distribution, with HEV engine-off operation averaging 57%, 36% and 5% of total operation for combined Urban, Rural and Freeway road sections, respectively. Re-ignition frequency was found to range between 11 and 133 events per hour, with spatial density ranging between 0.1 and 5.6 events per kilometer of roadway. A total of 3212 re-ignition events were observed and recorded, and mean HEV PNER during RIEVs, on average, ranged between 2.4 and 4.4 times greater than that of HEV Stabilized operation. Approximately 65% of all re-ignition events resulted in a peak PNER exceeding the 95% percentile for all ICE-on activity in both vehicles (9.3 x 1011 #/s), known as a High Emission Event Record (HEER). RIEV operation made up only 7.4% of total ICE-on operation for both vehicles but accounted for 35.4% of all HEERs. Overall, total particles emitted during HEV operation associated with re-ignition events ranged from 5% for Freeway driving to 60% for Urban I driving. Comparisons between vehicles found an average of 37% and 7% fuel conserving benefits of the HEV during Urban I and Freeway driving, respectively. However, a different effect was found for PN emissions. During Urban I driving, where RIEVs were most frequent, on average HEV PNER was 2.3 times greater than overall mean CV PNER. For Freeway driving, where the HEV operated similar to a conventional vehicle, mean CV PNER was 2.4 times greater than mean HEV PNER. PNER from partial re-ignition events following an incomplete ICE shutdown (no period of prior engine off operation) were on average 1.65 times greater than those occurring when the ICE shutdown for at least one second. The typical fuel consumption benefits of HEVs in urban driving are associated with a tradeoff in PN emissions. The HEV ICE operating behavior has implications for the spatial distribution of PN hot-spots as well as the associated micro-scale modeling of alternative vehicle technology emissions. It is likely that building a model of HEV behavior based upon CV activity will be appropriate, with consideration of a hybridization factor and, as a result of these analyses, a re-ignition factor.
For a century, almost all light-duty vehicles (LDVs) have been powered by internal combustion engines operating on petroleum fuels. Energy security concerns about petroleum imports and the effect of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on global climate are driving interest in alternatives. Transitions to Alternative Vehicles and Fuels assesses the potential for reducing petroleum consumption and GHG emissions by 80 percent across the U.S. LDV fleet by 2050, relative to 2005. This report examines the current capability and estimated future performance and costs for each vehicle type and non-petroleum-based fuel technology as options that could significantly contribute to these goals. By analyzing scenarios that combine various fuel and vehicle pathways, the report also identifies barriers to implementation of these technologies and suggests policies to achieve the desired reductions. Several scenarios are promising, but strong, and effective policies such as research and development, subsidies, energy taxes, or regulations will be necessary to overcome barriers, such as cost and consumer choice.
Medium- and heavy-duty trucks, motor coaches, and transit buses - collectively, "medium- and heavy-duty vehicles", or MHDVs - are used in every sector of the economy. The fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of MHDVs have become a focus of legislative and regulatory action in the past few years. This study is a follow-on to the National Research Council's 2010 report, Technologies and Approaches to Reducing the Fuel Consumption of Medium-and Heavy-Duty Vehicles. That report provided a series of findings and recommendations on the development of regulations for reducing fuel consumption of MHDVs. On September 15, 2011, NHTSA and EPA finalized joint Phase I rules to establish a comprehensive Heavy-Duty National Program to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fuel consumption for on-road medium- and heavy-duty vehicles. As NHTSA and EPA began working on a second round of standards, the National Academies issued another report, Reducing the Fuel Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles, Phase Two: First Report, providing recommendations for the Phase II standards. This third and final report focuses on a possible third phase of regulations to be promulgated by these agencies in the next decade.
With the availability of petroleum in shorter supply and the demand for a cleaner environment more prevalent than ever, a recent trend in the automotive industry is to produce more fuel efficient and lower emission vehicles. A current effort for reduction of petroleum usage in the auto industry is centered on the development and production of hybrid-electric vehicles. By the addition of an electric powertrain, hybrid vehicles are able to consume less fuel by allowing the vehicle's engine to operate under more efficient conditions more often than a conventional vehicle. Furthermore, petroleum usage can be further reduced by utilization of a more efficient diesel fueled engine rather than the conventional gasoline engines that power the majority of passenger vehicles in the United States. The downside to hybrid-electric operation is that in forcing the engine to operate more efficiently, higher levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) are generated. Gasoline powered engines operate with a fuel-rich combustion mixture; thus rendering the exhaust stream hot and containing little oxygen which leads to effective catalytic promotion of NOx treatment. On the other hand, diesel fueled engines have the distinct disadvantage of operating in an oxygen-rich combustion environment that produces lower combustion temperatures; both factors rendering typical catalytic converters impractical. The focus of this study aims to evaluate a small displacement, four cylinder, turbo-diesel engine for nitrogen oxide emission intended for use in a hybrid vehicle. The ultimate goal is to determine how the level of NOx emission can be reduced by targeting different engine operating scenarios via the hybrid control strategy and examine its effects on fuel economy. A diesel engine was tested in a laboratory setting over the range that it is expected to operate in a hybrid vehicle. An efficient experiment design was created to minimize both the amount of required data and error introduced into the final results. Through combustion modeling, collected data for the engine's intake air and fuel mass flow as well as volumetric exhaust content data was used to determine levels of engine-out mass flow of NOx over the engine's operating domain. Several fuel consumption and NOx emission parameters were calculated and regression models were developed to produce baseline engine maps. Based on the baseline maps, targeted engine operation points were selected to examine how the vehicle's hybrid control strategy might be tuned towards engine operation that provides lowered NOx emission at the cost of fuel economy. Results show that quite significant levels of NOx reduction can be had at a small cost in increased fuel use. However, even at reduced engine-out levels, NOx emission is still relatively considerable in terms of meeting standards set for by the United States Environmental Protection Agency. The use and effectiveness of selective catalyst reduction by injection of urea into the exhaust stream to treat engine-out NOx is also explored in this thesis.
This book provides an overview of air quality in urban environments in Europe, focusing on air pollutant emission sources and formation mechanisms, measurement and modeling strategies, and future perspectives. The emission sources described are biomass burning, vehicular traffic, industry and agriculture, but also African dust and long-range transport of pollutants across the European regions. The impact of these emission sources and processes on atmospheric particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen oxides and volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds is discussed and critical areas for particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide in Europe are identified. Finally, this volume presents future perspectives, mainly regarding upcoming air quality monitoring strategies, metrics of interest, such as submicron and nanoparticles, and indoor and outdoor exposure scenarios.
This book presents the papers from the Innovations in Fuel Economy and Sustainable Road Transport conference, held in Pune, India, 8-9 November, 2011. Papers examine advances in powertrain, alternative fuels, lightweight vehicles, electric vehicles and hybrid vehicles. An international assembly of senior industry representatives provide insight into research and technological advances in low carbon technology sustainability for road transport, helping towards achieving stringent emissions standards and continual improvements in fuel economy efficiency, all in an expanding Indian market. These technical papers from industry and academia discuss the developments and research of leading organisations. - Discusses maximising powertrain performance for a low carbon agenda - Provides readers with an understanding of the latest developments in alternative fuels - Examines the future landscape for the implementation and development of electric vehicles
The light-duty vehicle fleet is expected to undergo substantial technological changes over the next several decades. New powertrain designs, alternative fuels, advanced materials and significant changes to the vehicle body are being driven by increasingly stringent fuel economy and greenhouse gas emission standards. By the end of the next decade, cars and light-duty trucks will be more fuel efficient, weigh less, emit less air pollutants, have more safety features, and will be more expensive to purchase relative to current vehicles. Though the gasoline-powered spark ignition engine will continue to be the dominant powertrain configuration even through 2030, such vehicles will be equipped with advanced technologies, materials, electronics and controls, and aerodynamics. And by 2030, the deployment of alternative methods to propel and fuel vehicles and alternative modes of transportation, including autonomous vehicles, will be well underway. What are these new technologies - how will they work, and will some technologies be more effective than others? Written to inform The United States Department of Transportation's National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission standards, this new report from the National Research Council is a technical evaluation of costs, benefits, and implementation issues of fuel reduction technologies for next-generation light-duty vehicles. Cost, Effectiveness, and Deployment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light-Duty Vehicles estimates the cost, potential efficiency improvements, and barriers to commercial deployment of technologies that might be employed from 2020 to 2030. This report describes these promising technologies and makes recommendations for their inclusion on the list of technologies applicable for the 2017-2025 CAFE standards.
Non-Exhaust Emissions: An Urban Air Quality Problem for Public Health comprehensively summarizes the most recent research in the field, also giving guidance on research gaps and future needs to evaluate the health impact and possible remediation of non-exhaust particle emissions. With contributions from some of the major experts and stakeholders in air quality, this book comprehensively defines the state-of-the-art of current knowledge, gaps and future needs for a better understanding of particulate matter (PM) emissions, from non-exhaust sources of road traffic to improve public health. PM is a heterogeneous mix of chemical elements and sources, with road traffic being the major source in large cities. A significant part of these emissions come from non-exhaust processes, such as brake, tire, road wear, and road dust resuspension. While motor exhaust emissions have been successfully reduced by means of regulation, non-exhaust emissions are currently uncontrolled and their importance is destined to increase and become the dominant urban source of particle matter by 2020. Nevertheless, current knowledge on the non-exhaust emissions is still limited. This is an essential book to researchers and advanced students from a broad range of disciplines, such as public health, toxicology, atmospheric sciences, environmental sciences, atmospheric chemistry and physics, geochemistry, epidemiology, built environment, road and vehicle engineering, and city planning. In addition, European and local authorities responsible for air quality and those in the industrial sectors related to vehicle and brake manufacturing and technological remediation measures will also find the book valuable. - Acts as the first book to explore the health impacts of non-exhaust emissions - Authored by experts from several sectors, including academia, industry and policy - Gathers the relevant body of literature and information, defining the current knowledge, gaps and future needs
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) technologies have the potential for considerable petroleum consumption reductions, at the expense of increased tailpipe emissions due to multiple "cold" start events and improper use of the engine for PHEV specific operation. PHEVs operate predominantly as electric vehicles (EVs) with intermittent assist from the engine during high power demands. As a consequence, the engine can be subjected to multiple cold start events. These cold start events have a significant impact on the tailpipe emissions due to degraded catalyst performance and starting the engine under less than ideal conditions. On current hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), the first cold start of the engine dictates whether or not the vehicle will pass federal emissions tests. PHEV operation compounds this problem due to infrequent, multiple engine cold starts. The dissertation research focuses on the design of a vehicle supervisory control system for a pre-transmission parallel PHEV powertrain architecture. Energy management strategies are evaluated and implemented in a virtual environment for preliminary assessment of petroleum displacement benefits and rudimentary drivability issues. This baseline vehicle supervisory control strategy, developed as a result of this assessment, is implemented and tested on actual hardware in a controlled laboratory environment over a baseline test cycle. Engine cold start events are aggressively addressed in the development of this control system, which lead to enhanced pre-warming and energy-based engine warming algorithms that provide substantial reductions in tailpipe emissions over the baseline supervisory control strategy. The flexibility of the PHEV powertrain allows for decreased emissions during any engine starting event through powertrain "torque shaping" algorithms that eliminate high engine torque transients during these periods. The results of the dissertation research show that PHEVs do have the potential for substantial reductions in fuel consumption, while remaining environmentally friendly. Tailpipe emissions from a representative PHEV test platform have been reduced to acceptable levels through the development and refinement of vehicle supervisory control methods only. Impacts on fuel consumption are minimal for the emissions reduction techniques that are implemented, while in some cases, substantial fuel consumption reductions are observed.