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In the last thirty years of his life, Leo Tolstoy developed a moral philosophy that embraced pacifism, vegetarianism, the renunciation of private property, and a refusal to comply with the state. The transformation in his outlook led to his excommunication by the Orthodox Church, and the breakdown of his family life. Internationally, he inspired a legion of followers who formed communities and publishing houses devoted to living and promoting the Tolstoyan life. These enterprises flourished across Europe and the United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and Tolstoyism influenced individuals as diverse as William Jennings Bryan and Mohandas Gandhi. In this book, Charlotte Alston provides the first in-depth historical account of this remarkable phenomenon, and provides an important re-assessment of Tolstoy's impact on the political life of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The book is unique in its treatment of Tolstoyism as an international phenomenon: it explores both the connections between these Tolstoyan groups, and their relationships with other related reform movements.
The 1400s were a pivotal time in the history of Africans. The Songhai Empire rose to prominence and new city-states arose in Hausaland, Yorubaland and Benin. One of the most significant developments, however, was European and Asian exploration of the continent and the rapid expansion of the slave trade. By the end of the century, African slaves could be found from India to the Indies, and the foundation was laid for a peculiar institution that would last for over 400 years. From the time of the first European expeditions to Africa to the end of slavery in the United States, this work chronicles the most significant events in African, Pan-African and African American history. Many of the entries (e.g., Columbus' "discovery" of America and the death of Toussaint L'Ouverture) are supplemented by brief historical accounts that set the event in context. There are extensive see references to related happenings.