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Intro: The transition from childhood to adolescence is a period of increased risk for psychological problems (e.g. Keiley, & Martin, 2002). Exposure to community violence, may impact the degree to which psychological problems emerge during adolescence (Grant et al., 2004). Previous research also indicates that low-income urban youth are disproportionately exposed to severe community violence, leaving them at higher risk to experience psychopathology (Grant et al., 2004). However, recent longitudinal research suggests that this elevated risk may decline throughout the adolescent years (Murphy et al., 2000) especially for internalizing problems (J. Twenge & S. Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002). The current research hypothesizes that youth that are exposed to high rates of severe community violence that increase with age, may view internalizing behaviors leaving them vulnerable to further victimization (Guerra et al., 2003, Ng-Mak et al., 2002). To protect themselves, youth most exposed may avoid expressing internalizing distress, instead becoming more likely to externalize. Methods: The current study used multi-group growth curve models to examine the trajectories of internalizing problems and externalizing problems, respectively, comparing low-income urban youth in high and low exposure to violence groups. Symptoms were measured using broadband scales of psychopathology from Achenbach's Youth Self-Report and Child Behavioral Checklist (2001). Exposure to Community Violence was measured using Exposure to Violence Survey--Screening Version (Martinez & Richters, 1993). Results & Discussion: Results support the extant literature that indicates that low-income urban youth are at heightened risk for psychological problems. At wave 1, youth in our sample were more than twice as likely to report internalizing problems (33%) in the clinical range, compared to normative youth (16%). Risk of exhibiting externalizing behaviors was also elevated, with 20% of the sample scoring in the clinical range. Exposure to community violence, in particular, was also supported as a risk factor for psychological problems, as the high group demonstrated more of both types of psychopathology than the low group (as demonstrated by significant differences in intercept in the growth model). Comparison of trajectories (slopes) indicated that both internalizing and externalizing problems declined over time, a finding that was only partially supportive of our hypothesis. Additionally, negative trajectories for both outcomes were found in both the low and high exposure to violence groups, although the decline in internalizing problems was of greater magnitude for the high exposure to violence group, compared to the low group. No between-group differences in slope were found for externalizing problems. Results provide some support for the theory that youth that are exposed to rates of severe community violence that increase with age may avoid expressions of internalizing problems. However, clear support was not found for the hypothesis that these youth turn to externalizing behaviors as an alternative way of expressing psychological distress. Alternative hypotheses and explanations for our findings are discussed. Robust differences in findings were also found by reporter and are discussed.
Explains the neurological, emotional, and behavioral impacts of violence and trauma experienced by newborns, infants, children, and teenagers. Traumatic events known as adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) can affect children physically, mentally, and emotionally, sometimes with long-term health and behavioral effects. Abuse, neglect, exposure to community and domestic violence, and household dysfunction all have the potential to alter brain development and behavior, but few people are able to recognize or respond to trauma in children. Given the prevalence of childhood exposure to violence—with one in four children ages 5 to 15 living in households with only moderate levels of safety and nurturance and infants and children ages 0 to 3 comprising the highest percentage of those maltreated—it is imperative that students and professionals alike be able to identify types and consequences of violence and trauma. This book provides readers with the information they need in order to know how to detect and prevent ACEs and to help children who have lived through them.
The current study addresses a paradox in the literature wherein the coping strategies seeming to be most effective for predominantly Caucasian, middle-class, adult samples, sometimes have the opposite effect on low income urban youth. In doing so, exposure to violence is investigated as a moderator of the association between active, behavioral avoidance and cognitive avoidance and internalizing and externalizing outcomes over the short and long term for low income urban youth. Luthar and colleague's (2000) protective-reactive, protective-enhancing, and vulnerable-reactive models are theoretical bases for this hypothesis. The findings are that the association between behavioral avoidance and internalizing symptoms was protective, at low levels of violence and detrimental, at high levels over the short term. It argues methodological issues currently need to be addressed to further inform how to most effectively equip low income urban youth with effective copings strategies that will help them with specific stressors in the context of urban poverty.
Exposure to community violence is a pervasive problem among urban youth and has been associated with both internalizing and externalizing disorders. The mechanisms through which exposure to community violence impacts adolescent adjustment are unclear. A change in adolescent schemas has been proposed as a mechanism through which the impact occurs. The goals of this study were to develop a measure of relevant adolescent schemas and examine their relation to exposure to community violence. A sample of 320 5th and 8th graders were assessed and confirmatory factor analyses of the measure supported a three factor model, including self-schemas, world schemas and use of violence schemas. Exposure to community violence, including victimization and witnessing violence, was associated with more negative adolescent schemas. Witnessing violence and victimization had distinct relations with schemas highlighting the need to examine these types of exposure independently. Overall, this study provides preliminary support for the importance of studying adolescent schemas within the context of community violence. The measure developed represents an initial step in this process given what is available in the literature. However, additional work on the measure is needed to ensure that it accurately samples the schema domains that are relevant for youth in this context.
The identification of protective factors that might modify the negative effects of community violence (CV) is key for prevention efforts and the promotion of resilience among at-risk children and adolescents. The present study examined the relation between direct exposure to CV and children's social skills, externalizing and internalizing behavior problems, and academic competence in a sample of 125 African-American and Latino fifth-grade children across a nine month period. Of particular interest was the potential moderating or protective effect of positive school experiences and perceived peer acceptance in these relations. Results revealed that most children were victims of CV, with victimization status remaining relatively stable across the two time points. CV exposure was significantly associated with increased internalizing problems and decreased academic competence initially and with decreased social skills and increased externalizing problems across time. With the exception of social skills, these effects were the same for boys and girls and African-American and Latino children. Overall, analyses found no buffers of the effects of CV exposure on social skills, internalizing problems, and academic competence, but provided some evidence that being helped by other students and having a high total number of positive school experiences may help protect children from the adverse effect of CV on externalizing problems. Implications of the impact of CV exposure, as well as the moderating effects found are discussed.
Trauma has unfortunately become an all-too familiar occurrence in the lives of children, with a majority of youth experiencing a traumatic event before the age of 18. With the rise of school shootings and recent March for Our Lives, this timely book will address intervention strategies for social workers and counselors to combat this negative phenomenon. Urban Youth Trauma focuses on urban violence and guns, while due attention is also paid to other forms of trauma in order to ground violence-related trauma within the constellation of multiple forms of trauma. Violence, and more specifically that related to guns, is very much associated with urban centers and youth of color. Divided into three parts, this volume traces the roots of urban youth trauma. Parts I and II provide context and foundation for the problem and intervention strategies. Part III takes the reader through a variety of intervention strategies directly related to the community’s assets. The strength of Urban Youth Trauma’s lies in its focus on the community itself as the key to survival, resilience, and change.
The purpose of the current study was to investigate the prevalence and impact of personal victimization and witnessing violence in the school setting in a sample of low-income, ethnic-minority children. In addition, hope was examined as a potential protective factor in buffing youth from the development of problem behaviors in the context of school-specific violence. It was hypothesized that exposure to school violence would be positively associated with externalizing symptoms. Additionally, it was hypothesized that hope would be positively related to indices of adjustment, and inversely related to problem behaviors. Finally, exploratory questions suggested by extant research were posed further investigating associations between exposure to school violence and adjustment. Additionally, the moderating effects of hope and gender on the linkages between exposure to school violence and psychological and behavioral functioning were examined. Data were derived from a longitudinal primary prevention research project evaluating the impact of a social and emotional learning curriculum. Participants were approximately 161 African-American and Latino fifth graders. Students completed self-reports of self-concept and hope. Teachers completed a teacher-rated survey assessing levels of problem behaviors, social skills, and academic competence for each student in their class. Results indicated that the majority of youth had been personally victimized and witnessed violence on one or more occasion during a three-month period. In addition, exposure to school violence was positively associated with problem behaviors, and negatively associated with social skills, self-concept, and academic competence, most notably for males. Moreover, hope provided a buffering effect on females' self-concept for those witnessing higher levels of school violence. Implications of both the prevalence and impact of exposure to school violence, as well as the limited moderating effects of hope found in the current study are discussed in relation to intervention efforts and strengthening future research sampling low-income, ethnic-minority youth.
Limited research has examined the influence of coping on psychological and behavioral outcomes among urban low-income adolescents, particularly those exposed to violence. This study examined coping strategies, including active, distraction, support-seeking and avoidant coping, as moderators and partial mediators of the relations between exposure to violence and internalizing symptoms (anxiety/depression) and externalizing behaviors (prosocial behavior and aggression). These relations were examined based on data that were collected at the beginning and end of the school year as part of an evaluation of a school-based violence prevention program. Participants were 313 urban, low-income, African American fifth through eight grade students. Exposure to violence was negatively associated with active coping. Active coping was negatively associated with aggression, and avoidant coping was positively associated with anxiety/depression. Prosocial behavior was not associated with coping. The coping strategies did not moderate the relations between exposure to violence and longitudinal outcomes, taking into account initial outcomes; however, there were some significant cross-sectional moderational findings. Specifically, distracting action coping moderated the relation between exposure to violence and anxiety/depression and had a protective-reactive effect on this relation. Direct problem solving coping moderated the relation between exposure to violence and aggression, such that direct problem solving had a protective effect as exposure to violence increased. Structural equation modeling revealed that exposure to violence was positively associated with anxiety/depression, which predicted the use of cognitive coping strategies (cognitive avoidance and seeking understanding), and seeking understanding perpetuated anxiety/depression. In another model, exposure to violence predicted aggression, and avoidant action coping was negatively associated with exposure to violence and aggression. Overall, it appears that avoidant action and direct problem solving coping represent protective factors against aggression for adolescents exposed to violence, whereas seeking understanding and distraction action coping represent risk factors for anxiety/depression. It is likely that the complexity of coping processes may explain why longitudinal analyses that examined coping as a moderator were not significant. Nonetheless, results have implications for prevention/intervention, targeting coping skill development and violence prevention. Further longitudinal study of relations between exposure to violence, coping and outcomes among urban, low-income adolescents is needed.
African American youth residing in high risk neighborhoods, characterized by violence, crime, and poverty have been shown to be at increased risk for exposure to violence and psychological symptoms, and there has been little investigation of mediating processes that might explain these association. Due to the poor current state of mental health of low income ethnic minority youth, it is important to investigate the role of nondisclosure as a risk factor affecting psychological outcomes in urban African American adolescents from high risk neighborhoods. Nondisclosure among urban African American adolescents from neighborhoods affected by violence is associated with adverse psychological outcomes and can serve as a barrier to adult intervention and protection. Strong relationships with parents and/or extended family and community member may promote disclosure and better psychological adjustment, and buffer the adverse effects of violence experience by adolescents. This study tested conceptual models in which adolescents' nondisclosure to adults mediates the relation between community exposure to violence (CETV) and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. In addition, moderated mediation analysis were conducted in order to test the hypotheses that parent-child attachment and social support from extended kin and non-kin adults would attenuate the hypothesized relations among variables proposed in the mediation models. Structural equation modeling was used to conduct mediation and moderated mediation analysis. SEM analysis revealed that nondisclosure fully mediated the relation between CETV and internalizing symptoms, and partially mediated the relation between CETV and externalizing symptoms. However, calculation of decomposition of total effects, revealed that nondisclosure did not fully account for the relation between CETV and internalizing symptoms. Results of moderated mediation path analysis suggested that parent-child attachment and social support did not moderate the mediating role of nondisclosure between CETV and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. This research provides empirical support regarding the role of nondisclosure in urban African American adolescents. Particularly, this study revealed the disadvantages of adolescents' nondisclosure to adults, and provided insight about development and relationship factors influencing adolescent's nondisclosure to adults. The findings from this study have implications for intervention and prevention programs aimed to improve adolescent and adult communications and to minimize the effects of CETV.
Adolescenceâ€"beginning with the onset of puberty and ending in the mid-20sâ€"is a critical period of development during which key areas of the brain mature and develop. These changes in brain structure, function, and connectivity mark adolescence as a period of opportunity to discover new vistas, to form relationships with peers and adults, and to explore one's developing identity. It is also a period of resilience that can ameliorate childhood setbacks and set the stage for a thriving trajectory over the life course. Because adolescents comprise nearly one-fourth of the entire U.S. population, the nation needs policies and practices that will better leverage these developmental opportunities to harness the promise of adolescenceâ€"rather than focusing myopically on containing its risks. This report examines the neurobiological and socio-behavioral science of adolescent development and outlines how this knowledge can be applied, both to promote adolescent well-being, resilience, and development, and to rectify structural barriers and inequalities in opportunity, enabling all adolescents to flourish.