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This dissertation consists of three chapters in public and labor economics. A theme throughout these chapters is using empirical analysis to study the outcomes of low-income and immigrant individuals in the United States as well as the effects of public policies on these communities. Chapter 1 explores whether access to mental healthcare can reduce criminal activity. Specifically, I study the effect of losing insurance coverage on low-income men's likelihood of incarceration using administrative data from South Carolina. Leveraging a discrete break in Medicaid coverage at age 19, I find that men who lose access to Medicaid eligibility are 15% more likely to be incarcerated in the subsequent two years relative to a matched comparison group. The effects are entirely driven by men with mental health histories, suggesting that losing access to mental healthcare plays an important role in explaining the observed rise in crime. Cost-benefit analyses show that expanding Medicaid eligibility to low-income young men is a cost-effective policy for reducing crime, especially relative to traditional approaches like increasing the severity of criminal sanctions. Chapter 2 documents that immigration policies affect an individual's willingness to report crime. I analyze the 2015 Priority Enforcement Program (PEP), which focused immigration enforcement on individuals convicted of serious crimes and shifted resources away from immigration-related offenses. I use data from the Dallas Police Department that include a complainant's ethnicity to show that Hispanic-reported incidents increased by 8% after the introduction of PEP. These results suggest that reducing enforcement of individuals who do not pose a threat to public safety can potentially improve trust between immigrant communities and the police. Finally, in Chapter 3, Ran Abramitzky, Leah Boustan, Santiago Perez, and I find that children of immigrants from nearly every sending country have higher rates of upward mobility than children of the US-born. Using millions of father-son pairs spanning more than 100 years of US history, we show that immigrants' advantage is similar historically and today despite dramatic shifts in sending countries and US immigration policy. Immigrants achieve this advantage in part by choosing to settle in locations that offer better prospects for their children.
Outside Justice: Undocumented Immigrants and the Criminal Justice System fills a clear gap in the scholarly literature on the increasing conceptual overlap between popular perceptions of immigration and criminality, and its reflection in the increasing practical overlap between criminal justice and immigration control systems. Drawing on data from the United States and other nations, scholars from a range of academic disciplines examine the impact of these trends on the institutions, communities, and individuals that are experiencing them. Individual entries address criminal victimization and labor exploitation of undocumented immigrant communities, the effects of parental detention and deportation on children remaining in destination countries, relations between immigrant communities and law enforcement agencies, and the responses of law enforcement agencies to drastic changes in immigration policy, among other topics. Taken as a whole, these essays chart the ongoing progression of social forces that will determine the well-being of Western democracies throughout the 21st century. In doing so, they set forth a research agenda for reexamining and challenging the goals of converging criminal justice and immigration control policy, and raise a number of carefully considered, ethical alternatives to the contemporary policy status quo.​​Contemporary immigration is the focus of highly charged rhetoric and policy innovation, both attempting to define the movement of people across national borders as fundamentally an issue of criminal justice. This realignment has had profound effects on criminal justice policy and practice and immigration control alike, and raises far-reaching implications for social inclusion, labor economies, community cohesion, and a host of other areas of immediate interest to social science researchers and practitioners.
This dissertation is comprised of three chapters tied together under the broad umbrella of economic history. The first chapter examines the effect of access to schooling on black crime in this historic period. I use the construction of 5,000 new schools in the US south, funded by northern philanthropist Julius Rosenwald between 1913 and 1932, as a quasi-natural experiment which increased the educational attainment of southern black students. I match a sample of male prisoners and non-prisoners from the 1920-1940 Censuses backwards to their birth families in previous Census waves. I find that one year of access to a Rosenwald school decreased the probability of being a prisoner by 0.04-0.10 percentage points (10-15 percent of the mean). The second chapter examines immigrant assimilation in the early 20th century US. During the Age of Mass Migration (1850-1913), the US maintained an open border and absorbed 30 million European immigrants. In newly-assembled panel data, we show that immigrants did not face a substantial initial earnings penalty, as is commonly found, and experienced occupational advancement at the same rate as natives. Cross-sectional patterns are driven by biases from declining arrival cohort quality and departures of negatively-selected return migrants. We show that these findings vary substantially across sending countries and explore potential mechanisms. The third chapter uses an exogenous change in the language of instruction in South African schools in 1955 to examine the effect of mother-tongue versus "market" language instruction on long-term educational and economic outcomes. Using the 1980 South African census, a difference-in-difference framework allows me to estimate the effect of increasing mother-tongue instruction for black students from four to six years. I find small positive effects on wages which I interpret as evidence of increases in human capital. I find positive effects on the ability to read and write, negative effects on the ability to speak English and Afrikaans, and positive effects on educational attainment. I examine heterogeneous effects by region. This paper is relevant to language policy in post-colonial countries as well as Spanish speaking areas of the United States.
Immigration and School Safety utilizes a multidisciplinary approach to expose the complex relationship between immigration and school safety in the United States. It addresses not only individual, intrapersonal, and environmental factors but also distant-level conditions that are relevant to the experiences of immigrant children and connected to school safety. Twenty-five percent of all youth in U.S. schools have at least one immigrant parent, and that percentage is expected to increase to 33 percent by 2040. A wide array of factors, including but not limited to laws, public and political discourses, educational policies, interpersonal relationships, socioeconomic status, English language proficiency, citizenship, legal status, family characteristics, race and ethnicity, generational status, nationality, religion, and gender, contribute to the marginalizing experiences of children of immigrants at school. With the rapid growth of students in immigrant families in U.S. schools, any effort to address school violence and implement school safety policies must consider barriers associated with the unique educational experiences of that segment. This book highlights the often overlooked importance of immigration as a mediating factor in explaining both violence and victimization and provides a blueprint for integrating immigration and criminology theories into evidence-based efforts toward ensuring safety for all students. The authors demonstrate that immigration matters significantly in school violence and safety concerns and illustrate why research that integrates immigration with criminology theories is needed to understand the causes and correlates of school violence. The book will appeal to a wide array of individuals, including academics, educators, policymakers, practitioners, social workers, parents, and stakeholders who are committed to addressing educational disparities and inequities associated with immigration and school safety.
The papers in this collection assess contemporary patterns of crime as related to immigration, race, and ethnicity. Overall, the contributors argue that fears of immigrant crime are largely unfounded, as immigrants are themselves often more likely to be the victims of discrimination, stigmatization, and crime.
This dissertation examines the effects of US immigration policy on both immigrants themselves and the US economy and society more broadly. The past two decades were a period of large swings in immigration policy, from which immigrants are allowed to cross the border, how they access public programs, health care, and education once in the US, and whether those without authorization to live in the country are forced to leave. This work adds to our understanding of the consequences of these changes, both intended and unintended. In addition to providing guidance as to the possible effects future swings in immigration policy, understanding the past effects of policy changes affecting immigrants is a useful tool to gain insight on the costs of barriers to health care and education more broadly. Chapter 1, joint work with Giovanni Peri, considers the effect of immigration enforcement on local crime and police efficiency in the US. Reducing crime by deporting criminals is a key justification for intensified deportations, particularly under the Trump Administration; however, there are also concerns that fear of deportation reduces community policing in immigrant communities and misallocates police resources. Providing empirical evidence for or against the validity of these claims is key to making informed policy decisions. Our identification relies increases in the deportation rate driven by the introduction of the Secure Communities (SC) program, an immigration enforcement program based on local-federal cooperation which was rolled out across counties between 2008 and 2013. We instrument for the deportation rate by interacting the introduction of SC with the local presence of likely undocumented in 2005, prior to the introduction of SC, and document a surge in local deportation rates under SC, concentrated among counties with a large undocumented population. We find that SC-driven increases in deportation rates did not reduce crime rates for violent offenses or property offenses. We do not find evidence that SC increased either police effectiveness in solving crimes or local police resources. Finally, we do not find effects of deportations on the local employment of unskilled citizens or on local firm creation. Chapter 2 turns to the unintended effects of immigration enforcement and examine the impact of deportations on health care access for immigrants themselves. I combine hospital inpatient discharge records from Florida and Arizona with information on immigration enforcement under the Secure Communities (SC) program to examine the consequences of immigration enforcement for the use of health care services and admissions for preventable diagnoses. This is a particularly important question given the high costs of health care in the US: if fear deters immigrants from receiving regular outpatient and preventive care, they may fall back on the emergency room when minor ailments get more serious, thus using a much higher cost service. While prior literature finds significant impacts of immigration enforcement on health outcomes, this paper does not find convincing causal evidence that an increase in immigration enforcement affected the prevalence of ambulatory-sensitive conditions or total inpatient admissions. It may be the case that the group affected by SC was already delaying health care, avoiding hospitals, and finding other avenues of care, and enforcement did not change behaviors or outcomes further. Differential trends in health by ethnicity, combined with confounding factors such as the Great Recession that occurred simultaneously with increases in immigration enforcement, suggest caution in extrapolating meaningful effects from the impact of immigration policies on health outcomes. Chapter 3, joint work with Michel Grosz, examines the impact of a reduction in college tuition targeted at undocumented immigrants in Colorado. We study the effects of this effective decrease in college tuition on college application and enrollment behavior. Specifically, we use student-level data to analyze a Colorado law that granted in-state tuition to certain undocumented students. We find an increase in the credit hours and persistence of newly enrolled and likely undocumented students. Leveraging application-level data, we show that the policy induced more students to enroll in college due to an increase in applications, rather than an increase in the acceptance rate or the enrollment rate. We do not find evidence of changes in the persistence or credit hours of continuing students.
This brief examines various dimensions of the immigration-crime relationship in the United States. It evaluates a range of theories and arguments asserting an immigration-crime link, reviews studies examining its nature and predictors, and considers the impacts of immigration policy. Synthesizing a diverse body of scholarship across many disciplinary fields, this brief is a comprehensive resource for researchers engaged in questions of linkages between crime and immigration, citizenship, and race/ethnicity, and for those seeking to separate fact from fiction on an issue of great scientific and social importance.
Examines the nexus between immigration and crime from all of the angles. This work addresses not just the evidence regarding the criminality of immigrants but also the research on the victimization of immigrants; human trafficking; domestic violence; the police handling of human trafficking; and, the exportation to crime problems via deportation.