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"In the event of an accident, one action that an occupant can take to contribute to their survival is to assume an appropriate 'brace-for-impact' position. This is an action in which a person pre-positions their body against whatever they are most likely to be thrown against, significantly reducing injuries sustained. Occupants in the US Airways flight 1549 sustained shoulder injuries that they attributed to the brace position; therefore, the NTSB recommended that the position be re-evaluated. The Federal Aviation Administration investigated this by conducting a series of 17 sled impact tests, 15 with two rows of transport category forward facing passenger seats and two with a bulkhead configured to represent the types of seats currently in use. Head, neck, upper and lower leg injury risks were evaluated using an advanced test dummy and injury criteria from current FAA regulations, Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards, European auto safety regulations, and applicable research findings. The current brace position, head against the seat back with hands on top of the seat back, was only successful in reducing head injury risk for locked-out seat backs. However, for full break-over and energy absorbing seat backs, this position increased the severity of the head impact. There was, however, no evidence that the anthropomorphic test device interaction with any of the seatback types resulted in hyperextension of the shoulder joint. Significant lower leg injury potential was not observed in this study, and therefore adopting lower leg injury criteria at this time does not appear to be a benefit. Even in the worst case test condition, the femur axial compressive force was below the regulatory limit, indicating that the femur compression criteria currently cited in FAA regulations is not likely to be exceeded in passenger seat dynamic qualification tests. To reduce detrimental interaction between the occupant's arms and the seatback, the current position was modified by placing the hands down by the lower legs instead of on the seat back. This alternate position was successful in significantly reducing head and neck injury risk for all of the seat back types evaluated. This research has led to the determination that as seat technology has evolved, the most effective brace position has as well, and the current positions recommended in AC 121- 24B may need some adjustment to provide an equivalent level of safety for all passenger seat back types."--Abstract.
Military Injury Biomechanics: The Cause and Prevention of Impact Injuries is a reference manual where information and data from a large number of sources, focussing on injuries related to military events, has been critically reviewed and discussed. The book covers the cause and prevention of impact injuries to all the major body regions, while topics such as the historical background of military impact biomechanics, the history and use of anthropomorphic test devices for military applications and the medical management of injuries are also discussed. An international team of experts have been brought together to examine and review the topics. The book is intended for researchers, postgraduate students and others working or studying defence and impact injuries.
As part of the national effort to improve aviation safety, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) chartered the National Research Council to examine and recommend improvements in the aircraft certification process currently used by the FAA, manufacturers, and operators.
"The risk of head-neck injuries was evaluated for certain aircraft seat and interior configurations in aircraft longitudinal impacts. Two loading scenarios for the head-neck system were investigated: inertial (noncontact) loading in posterior-anterior and lateral direction using a forward facing seat and side facing couch, respectively, and contact loading through impacts of the head with typical aircraft interior components. The sled tests simulate an impact along the longitudinal axis of the aircraft; however, the seat orientation causes either forward or lateral occupant loading. The FAA Hybrid III was used in the occupant-forward impacts, and the ES-2 Anthropomorphic Test Device (ATD) was used in the occupant-lateral impacts. The ATDs utilized a unique 9-accelerometer array (NAP) bracket. Techniques were applied to derive rotational acceleration and velocity from the NAP. Head rotational velocities were cross-validated using photometric techniques. Both ATDs were also equipped with upper and lower neck 6-axis load cells. The restraint configurations investigated for inertial loading were a forward facing pilot seat with a 4-point restraint, a forward facing passenger seat with a lap belt restraint, and a side facing passenger seat with a 3-point restraint. The contact load configurations utilized a forward facing passenger seat with a lap belt restraint with either a passenger seat back or simulated class divider as impact surfaces. The neck injury potential was evaluated by the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards Nij criterion, using the neck loads at the occipital condyle level. The NAP data were used to evaluate head injury potential with multiple versions of the Head Injury Criteria (HIC), Skull Fracture Correlate, and the Brain Injury Criteria (BrIC). Neck injury was not a significant risk in most of the forward facing configurations tested; the only test with a Nij value above the limit also exceeded the HIC limit. For the side facing test configurations, neck injury was a significant risk, particularly for seating systems that did not provide effective upper body support. For head injury risk, significant differences were seen between the aviation and automotive versions of HIC. In several tests, aviation HIC was not calculated because there was no contact, but the automotive versions of HIC and BrIC suggest a risk of head injury. Overall, these results indicate that using both HIC and BrIC to evaluate seating systems could provide a safety benefit by directly evaluating the risk of skull fracture and traumatic brain injury."--Abstract.
With the deregulation of commercial airlines in 1978, the United States airline industry has changed dramatically. Route entry and exit flexibility, as well as fare setting have stimulated competition, forcing airlines to emphasize cost control, increased productivity, and effective marketing. How have these changes in both public and private policies influenced airline safety? Do airplanes have more accidents now than ever before? This work examines the causes of airplane accidents and what private and public policies are needed to improve aviation safety. It begins by examining the safety record of the United States commuter airline industry in the post-deregulation era characterized by increased emphasis by airlines on cost control and growing pressures on the air traffic control and airport system. The authors go beyond the safety of the scheduled airlines to examine the reasons for accidents in the nonscheduled and general aviation segments of the United States industry, where the bulk of fatalities occur and where airline pilots increasingly receive most of their training and experience. They then turn to an examination of aviation safety throughout the world, first with a detailed comparison of Canadian and American aviation safety, and then with a look at air safety in all regions of the world and the safety performances of all the world's major airlines. Three emerging issues are then examined in greater detail: assessing the margin of safety, worldwide aging of all airline fleets, and terrorism. Clearly written, this careful and systematic analysis of well over 15,000 individual aviation accidents will provide greater insight for government officials, aviation industrymanagers, and researchers, as well as laypeople and other frequent flyers.
The use of general aviation aircraft in transportation during the past decade has increased rapidly. Possibly more passengers are transported annually in general aviation aircraft than in all commercial air carriers combined. Investigations of general aviation aircraft accidents believed to be survivable indicate that the causes and types of injuries and fatalities are not different from those documented 30 to 40 years ago. However, improvements in the crashworthiness of automobiles during the past decade has been documented through a reduction of the fatality-to-injury ratios. Such improvement in general aviation aircraft crashworthiness has been sought by the National Transportation Safety Board, the Civil Aeronautics Board, and others for more than 35 years. This report reviews past accident investigations, regulatory developments, and crashworthiness research activities, and assesses the adequacy of current general aviation crashworthiness requirements. As a result of this review, recommendations for improved crashworthiness of general aviation aircraft are made.
This report is the second in a series of reports to be issued by the National Transportation Safety Board as a result of its General Aviation Crashworthiness program. The purpose of this program is to provide information to support changes in crashworthiness design standards for seating and restraint systems in general aviation airplanes. A Phase One report presented a methodology for documenting impact severity. This Phase Two report presents specific data on survivable accidents. The data developed in this study suggest that the survivable enveloe is defined by impact speeds of 45 knots at 90 degrees of impact angle, 60 knots at 45 degrees, and 75 knots at zero degrees. Data are presented which demonstrate that if all occupants wear shoulder harnesses, fatalities are expected to be reduced by 20 percent and 88 percent of the seriously injured persons in survivable crashes are expected to experience significantly fewer life-threatening injuries. Thirty-four ercent of the seriously injured occupants of survivable accidents are expected to be less seriously injured if energy-absorbing seats are available.