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This is the first comprehensive overview of computational approaches to Arabic morphology. The subtitle aims to reflect that widely different computational approaches to the Arabic morphological system have been proposed. The book provides a showcase of the most advanced language technologies applied to one of the most vexing problems in linguistics. It covers knowledge-based and empirical-based approaches.
Arabic is known for the richness and complexity of its morphology and syntax. This is why Arabic has always posed a challenge for computational processing and served as a hard testing ground for new methods and models. This book provides an in-depth study of the Arabic morphology and syntax from a theoretical and computational point of view with emphasis on the ambiguity problem. The book discusses the different development strategies of Arabic morphological analysis and explains the architecture of a new powerful morphological analyser that has a significantly fewer number of ambiguities. It investigates the interesting phenomena of multi-word expressions with their varying categories, structures and degree of semantic opaqueness. The book formulates a description of the main syntactic structures of Arabic, examining word order, agreement, long-distance dependencies, and copula constructions. The book tackles the daunting problem of syntactic disambiguation. It identifies the sources of ambiguities and explores the full range of tools and mechanisms for ambiguity management. The book is very useful for researchers and students wanting an appreciation of the Arabic language system.
This book provides system developers and researchers in natural language processing and computational linguistics with the necessary background information for working with the Arabic language. The goal is to introduce Arabic linguistic phenomena and review the state-of-the-art in Arabic processing. The book discusses Arabic script, phonology, orthography, morphology, syntax and semantics, with a final chapter on machine translation issues. The chapter sizes correspond more or less to what is linguistically distinctive about Arabic, with morphology getting the lion's share, followed by Arabic script. No previous knowledge of Arabic is needed. This book is designed for computer scientists and linguists alike. The focus of the book is on Modern Standard Arabic; however, notes on practical issues related to Arabic dialects and languages written in the Arabic script are presented in different chapters. Table of Contents: What is "Arabic"? / Arabic Script / Arabic Phonology and Orthography / Arabic Morphology / Computational Morphology Tasks / Arabic Syntax / A Note on Arabic Semantics / A Note on Arabic and Machine Translation
By the late 1970s phonologists, and later morphologists, had departed from a linear approach for describing morphophonological operations to a nonlinear one. Computational models, however, remain faithful to the linear model, making it very difficult, if not impossible, to implement the morphology of languages whose morphology is nonconcatanative. Computational Nonlinear Morphology aims at presenting a computational system that counters the development in linguistics. It provides a detailed computational analysis of the complex morphophonological phenomena found in Semitic languages based on linguistically motivated models.
We developed an original approach to Arabic traditional morphology, involving new concepts in Semitic lexicology, morphology, and grammar for standard written Arabic. This new methodology for handling the rich and complex Semitic languages is based on good practices in Finite-State technologies (FSA/FST) by using Unitex, a lexicon-based corpus processing suite. For verbs (Neme, 2011), I proposed an inflectional taxonomy that increases the lexicon readability and makes it easier for Arabic speakers and linguists to encode, correct, and update it. Traditional grammar defines inflectional verbal classes by using verbal pattern-classes and root-classes. In our taxonomy, traditional pattern-classes are reused, and root-classes are redefined into a simpler system. The lexicon of verbs covered more than 99% of an evaluation corpus. For nouns and adjectives (Neme, 2013), we went one step further in the adaptation of traditional morphology. First, while this tradition is based on derivational rules, we found our description on inflectional ones. Next, we keep the concepts of root and pattern, which is the backbone of the traditional Semitic model. Still, our breakthrough lies in the reversal of the traditional root-and-pattern Semitic model into a pattern-and-root model, which keeps small and orderly the set of pattern classes and root sub-classes. I elaborated a taxonomy for broken plural containing 160 inflectional classes, which simplifies ten times the encoding of broken plural. Since then, I elaborated comprehensive resources for Arabic. These resources are described in Neme and Paumier (2019). To take into account all aspects of the rich morphology of Arabic, I have completed our taxonomy with suffixal inflexional classes for regular plurals, adverbs, and other parts of speech (POS) to cover all the lexicon. In all, I identified around 1000 Semitic and suffixal inflectional classes implemented with concatenative and non-concatenative FST devices.From scratch, I created 76000 fully vowelized lemmas, and each one is associated with an inflectional class. These lemmas are inflected by using these 1000 FSTs, producing a fully inflected lexicon with more than 6 million forms. I extended this fully inflected resource using agglutination grammars to identify words composed of up to 5 segments, agglutinated around a core inflected verb, noun, adjective, or particle. The agglutination grammars extend the recognition to more than 500 million valid delimited word forms, partially or fully vowelized. The flat file size of 6 million forms is 340 megabytes (UTF-16). It is compressed then into 11 Mbytes before loading to memory for fast retrieval. The generation, compression, and minimization of the full-form lexicon take less than one minute on a common Unix laptop. The lexical coverage rate is more than 99%. The tagger speed is 5000 words/second, and more than 200 000 words/s, if the resources are preloaded/resident in the RAM. The accuracy and speed of our tools result from our systematic linguistic approach and from our choice to embrace the best practices in mathematical and computational methods. The lookup procedure is fast because we use Minimal Acyclic Deterministic Finite Automaton (Revuz, 1992) to compress the full-form dictionary, and because it has only constant strings and no embedded rules. The breakthrough of our linguistic approach remains principally on the reversal of the traditional root-and-pattern Semitic model into a pattern-and-root model.Nonetheless, our computational approach is based on good practices in Finite-State technologies (FSA/FST) as all the full-forms were computed in advance for accurate identification and to get the best from the FSA compression for fast and efficient lookups.
Previous work on morphology has largely tended either to avoid precise computational details or to ignore linguistic generality. Computational Morphologyis the first book to present an integrated set of techniques for the rigorous description of morphological phenomena in English and similar languages. By taking account of all facets of morphological analysis, it provides a linguistically general and computationally practical dictionary system for use within an English parsing program. The authors covermorphographemics (variations in spelling as words are built from their component morphemes),morphotactics (the ways that different classes of morphemes can combine, and the types of words that result), andlexical redundancy (patterns of similarity and regularity among the lexical entries for words). They propose a precise rule-notation for each of these areas of linguistic description and present the algorithms for using these rules computationally to manipulate dictionary information. These mechanisms have been implemented in practical and publicly available software, which is described in detail, and appendixes contain a large number of computer-tested sets of rules and lexical entries for English. Graeme D. Ritchie is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Artificial Intelligence at the University of Edinburgh, where Alan W. Black is currently a research student. Graham J. Russell is a Research Fellow at ISSCO (Institut Dalle Molle pour les etudes semantiques et cognitives) in Geneva, and Stephen G. Pulman is a Lecturer in the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory and Director of SRI International's Cambridge Computer Science Research Centre.
This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the Third International Workshop on Systems and Frameworks for Computational Morphology, SFCM 2013, held in Berlin, in September 2013. The 7 full papers were carefully reviewed and selected from 15 submissions and are complemented with an invited talk. The papers discuss recent advances in the field of computational morphology.
This book provides the first broad yet thorough coverage of issues in morphological theory. It includes a wide array of techniques and systems in computational morphology (including discussion of their limitations), and describes some unusual applications.Sproat motivates the study of computational morphology by arguing that a computational natural language system, such as a parser or a generator, must incorporate a model of morphology. He discusses a range of applications for programs with knowledge of morphology, some of which are not generally found in the literature. Sproat then provides an overview of some of the basic descriptive facts about morphology and issues in theoretical morphology and (lexical) phonology, as well as psycholinguistic evidence for human processing of morphological structure. He take up the basic techniques that have been proposed for doing morphological processing and discusses at length various systems (such as DECOMP and KIMMO) that incorporate part or all of those techniques, pointing out the inadequacies of such systems from both a descriptive and a computational point of view. He concludes by touching on interesting peripheral areas such as the analysis of complex nominals in English, and on the main contributions of Rumelhart and McClelland's connectionism to the computational analysis of words.
Arabic Information Retrieval reviews Arabic IR including the nature of the Arabic language, the techniques used for pre-processing the language, the latest research in Arabic IR in different domains, and the open areas in Arabic IR.