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In the years immediately preceding the War of 1812, England was dominated by a faction that pledged itself not only to defeat Napoleon but also to maintain British commercial supremacy. The two main points of contention between England and America—impressment and the restrictions imposed by the Orders in Council—were direct results of these commitments. America finally had no alternative but to oppose with force British maritime policy. In addition to tracing the gradual drift to war in America, Professor Horsman shows that the Indian problem and American expansionist designs against Canada played small part in bringing about the struggle. He examines the efforts made by America to avoid conflict through means of economic coercion, efforts the failure of which confronted the nation with two alternatives: war or submission to England. This volume offers the first analysis of the causes of the war from both the British and American points of view, showing clearly that, contrary to the popular misconception, the war’s basic causes are to be found not in America but in Europe.
Seven years of war forced a reluctant mother country to recognize the independence of the thirteen American colonies. With the signing of the treaty at Paris on the 3rd of September 1783, the rebellion came to a formal end, and a new state entered the family of nations. But the resulting peace stopped short of men's minds and spirits. There was no binding up of wounds nor forgetting of past injuries. On the contrary, hatred persisted and, if anything, intensified. On both sides of the Atlantic a nurturing of grievances, of suspicions, and of jealousies continued. For over thirty years Britons and Americans viewed one another with a jaundiced eye until a second peace treaty—this time at Ghent in 1814—brought to a formal close a second Anglo-American war. In the midst of this long, drawn-out conflict moved Phineas Bond, Esq. He reached the age of reason in Philadelphia before the outbreak of the War for Independence and was politically active in Pennsylvania from the beginning of what he called, "the Time of Troubles." He played a role as an American Tory, albeit a brief one, in the Revolution itself and with thousands of other Loyalists sought asylum in England. During a seemingly endless exile he became one of the most trusted attorneys of those British merchants in the Atlantic trade to whom Americans owed vast sums of money. Three years after the Peace of Paris, Bond returned to Philadelphia as His Britannic Majesty's consul to the middle states and as a representative of the merchants. There he remained, serving king and traders, until the eve of the War of 1812. Although occupying comparatively minor posts, Bond became a microcosm of his time. His thoughts and work, his dreams and hopes, his experiences and convictions point up the era between the two wars for American independence.
In addition to his political activities, Attwood laid claim to competence as an economist, based on his experience in banking and his observation of industrial practices in Birmingham. He focused most of his attention on the gold standard and its inhibitory effect on the growth of the economy. Long before the development of modern schools of economic theory, Attwood sought the regulation of business through control of the money supply. He was unsuccessful in his challenge to the Ricardian school, which promised stability through a gold based economy, and died disillusioned. Birmingham became identified with his brand of economic theory and a succession of economists followed his lead into the national arena. Through his study of Attwood's career and the development of his philosophy, David Moss reveals the impact of industrialism on the individual and society.