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"As a consequence of the increasing importance of tritium resulting from nuclear fission and neutron activation, from its use in accelerators, from its use in research and industry, and from its use in the investigation of the environment and its distribution in the environment, the NCRP designated a scientific committee to prepare a report on the currently acceptable methods of measuring tritium. This report is particularly aimed in assisting an individual to select a procedure suitable to the problem at hand." --From Preface, page iii.
This book focuses on tritium as a fuel for fusion reactors and a next-generation energy source. Following an introduction of tritium as a hydrogen radioisotope, important issues involved in establishing safe and economical tritium fuel cycles including breeding for a fusion reactor are summarized; these include the handling of large amounts of tritium: confinement, leakage, contamination, permeation, regulation and tritium accountancy, and impacts on surrounding areas. Targeting and encouraging the students and technicians who will design and operate fusion reactors in the near future, this book offers a valuable resource on tritium science and technology.
This publication contains information on the dosimetry and monitoring of tritium, the use of protective clothing for work with tritium, safe practices in tritium handling laboratories and details of tritium compatible materials. The information has been compiled from experience in the various applications of tritium and should represent valuable source material to all users of tritium, including those involved in fusion R&D.
Tritium, 3H (T), is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen. Naturally occurring tritium is rare on Earth, where trace amounts are formed by the interaction of the atmosphere with cosmic rays. Once formed in the stratosphere, the tritium atoms have a large amount of kinetic energy. At a pressure lower than atmospheric, they react with the oxygen, creating a stable radical HO2. This radical reacts with ozone, following the photochemical reaction of decomposition TO2 to HTO. Once tritium is incorporated into the water molecule, then it falls to the Earth's surface as precipitation or snow, thus entering into the natural hydrological cycle.With a half-life of 12.32 years and a maximum energy of 18 keV beta radiation, this radioisotope is not dangerous externally, but it can be a radiation hazard when inhaled, ingested via food or water, or absorbed through the skin. The biological half-life ranges from around 7 to 14 days, so bioaccumulation of tritium is not a significant concern.Tritium is a very useful hydro-geological tracer and can be successfully applied in assessing the age of groundwater and residence times of continental hydrologic systems or as an oceanic transient tracer. Tritium releases from nuclear installations may be useful for some applications as a powerful local tracer, but on the other hand such releases may affect the reliability and accuracy of tritium use as a global tracer. For this reason, measuring of the activity concentrations of tritium is regularly a part of every national and/or international monitoring programme. Tritium is also used in radio luminescent light sources for watches and various instruments, and, along with deuterium, as a fuel for nuclear fusion reactors with applications in energy generation and weapons.The amount of tritium that appears in the atmosphere as a product of human activity comes from: nuclear reactors, production of nuclear weapons, atmospheric and above ground nuclear explosions, heavy water and tritium plants, and plants for tritium separation. The use of tritium labeled compounds for medical and research purposes is also a possible source of contamination by tritium.Knowledge of the tritium concentration distribution in the environment, awareness of various anthropogenic sources of tritium, and optimization of measurement conditions are of great importance in various applications and in preserving human health.
Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis is written by experts in the measurement of radioactivity. The book describes the broad scope of analytical methods available and instructs the reader on how to select the proper technique. It is intended as a practical manual for research which requires the accurate measurement of radioactivity at all levels, from the low levels encountered in the environment to the high levels measured in radioisotope research. This book contains sample preparation procedures, recommendations on steps to follow, necessary calculations, computer controlled analysis, and high sample throughput techniques. Each chapter includes practical techniques for application to nuclear safety, nuclear safeguards, environmental analysis, weapons disarmament, and assays required for research in biomedicine and agriculture. The fundamentals of radioactivity properties, radionuclide decay, and methods of detection are included to provide the basis for a thorough understanding of the analytical procedures described in the book. Therefore, the Handbook can also be used as a teaching text. - Includes sample preparation techniques for matrices such as soil, air, plant, water, animal tissue, and surface swipes - Provides procedures and guidelines for the analysis of commonly encountered na
Over the past decade significant progress has been achieved in the development of waste characterization and control procedures and equipment as a direct response to ever-increasing requirements for quality and reliability of information on waste characteristics. Failure in control procedures at any step can have important, adverse consequences and may result in producing waste packages which are not compliant with the waste acceptance criteria for disposal, thereby adversely impacting the repository. The information and guidance included in this publication corresponds to recent achievements and reflects the optimum approaches, thereby reducing the potential for error and enhancing the quality of the end product. -- Publisher's description.
This report assesses the levels and effects of exposure to ionizing radiation. Scientific findings underpin radiation risk evaluation and international protection standards. This report comprises a report with two underpinning scientific annexes. The first annex recapitulates and clarifies the philosophy of science as well as the scientific knowledge for attributing observed health effects in individuals and populations to radiation exposure, and distinguishes between that and inferring risk to individuals and populations from an exposure. The second annex reviews the latest thinking and approaches to quantifying the uncertainties in assessments of risk from radiation exposure, and illustrates these approaches with application to examples that are highly pertinent to radiation protection.
Two dozen studies from an April-May 1998 conference in Tallinn, Estonia that were carefully commissioned to provide a snapshot of the state of knowledge about the flow of fresh water from Arctic Ocean as of that weekend, one paper even being written afterward to cover for a presentation that was not ready for publication. Meteorologists, hydrologists, oceanographers, and sea-ice specialists explore such aspects as oceanic freshwater fluxes in the climate system, atmospheric components of the Arctic Ocean freshwater balance and their interannual variability, atmospheric components of the hydrologic budget assessed from Rawinsonde data, moisture transport to the drainage basins relating to significant precipitation events and cyclogenesis, the dynamics of river water inflow, a positive-negative estuarine couple, tracer studies, exchanges of freshwater through the shallow straits of the North American Arctic, modeling the variability of exchanges between the Arctic Ocean and the Nordic seas, and the cycle of fresh water freezing and melting. Annotation copyrighted by Book News, Inc., Portland, OR