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Within organizations there are leaders and there are followers; if there were no followers then leaders would not have anyone to lead. However, leadership is not one person but instead a process in which followers can affect and inhibit leaders’ productivity in active ways. Thus, there is a need to study followers and their ability to impact leaders and organizations. Within academic research, the primary focus has been on leadership and what constitutes an effective leader.. Researchers recently have developed the concept of co-production of leadership beliefs (CPLBs), which are the beliefs that an individual holds that followers should partner with leaders to work together to achieve the highest levels of productivity. CPLB congruence may be successful in predicting leader and follower outcomes because CPLBs focus on how followers’ roles are viewed and how followers should behave in relation to leaders in organizations to assist in the leadership process. Survey data was collected from 69 established leader-subordinate dyads within two different organizations measuring CPLBs and outcomes, including liking, relationship quality, turnover intentions, employee voice, constructive resistance, job satisfaction, and job performance. Polynomial regression with response surface modeling was utilized to test the hypotheses. Twenty-seven polynomial regressions were investigated, and three regressions had significant R2 values. Results revealed that employee voice is highest when the leader has high levels of proactive CPLBs. Additionally, LMX rated by the follower was lowest when the leader had high levels of obedience CPLBs, especially when the follower had low levels of obedience CPLBs. Similar results were found for obedience CPLBs and followers’ liking of their leaders . These results suggest that the congruence of leader and follower CPLBs may not be as important as originally believed, but that leader CPLBs may be more impactful independently on follower outcomes. This was particularly the case for leaders’ obedience CPLBs, which were negatively related to follower constructive resistance, employee voice, followers’ liking of their leader, and follower-rated LMX. Future research should continue to clarify the importance of leader versus follower CPLBs and how they combine to predict relationship and performance outcomes.
Previous books of the Leadership Horizon Series showed unequivocally how both leaders and followers play an equally important part in the co-production of leadership outcomes, and how leader and follower identities are fluid, so that the same individual can enact both at different times. This book stretches the notion of leadership a step further by exploring the co-enactment of both roles, identities, and positions of leader and follower by one same individual. This individual is defined as a connecting leader, as in this co-enactment he/she functions as connector between different leadership relationships. The concept of connecting leader emerges from the observation that most individuals in organizations engage in the leader-follower role co-enactment: managers, pulled between executives and reportees; CEOs, between the board and the head of departments; or employees involved in cross functional teams, leading and following in different degrees, subject to their expertise. Yet, despite its pervasiveness this concept is at best under theorized by the literature, which, dominated by dyadic and romanticized views, mostly presents the roles as enacted by separate individuals facing each other. To advance our understanding of connecting leaders the editor proposes to shift our focus on leadership in three ways: to unpack the interconnectedness and interplay of leader and follower identities; to investigate the tensions arising from the co-enactment and how these can be overcome; to widen the way in which we study leadership, through new configurations (e.g. leadership triads) and ontologies; and finally to consider the similarities between leading and following. The book chapters are organized to mirror these areas of exploration. Understanding leadership from a perspective that acknowledges that many individuals in organizations are not just leaders or followers, but both, democratizes the way we theorize leadership, and moves us further away from the temptation to romanticize it.
Until recently, the vast majority of leadership research has been leader-focused, examining leader characteristics and behaviors that make for effective leadership. A more recent shift towards followership "reverses the lens" by focusing on how followers' perceptions of their role in the leadership process affects the leaders' effectiveness. Servant leadership is a follower-focused leadership style in which the leader's main goal is to selflessly serve followers' needs first and foremost. This study examined the relationships between five personal characteristics and preference for servant leadership, and the mediating effect of followers' implicit leadership theories (ILTs) and implicit followership theories (IFTs) on those relationships. Participants included undergraduate and graduate students who participated as part of an extra credit class assignment. Data were gathered in three phases, each of which were two weeks apart, with the personality characteristic variables being collected in phase 1, the implicit leadership and followership theories at phase 2, and the dependent variable, preference for servant leadership, collected at phase 3. After conducting a factor analysis to evaluate the co-production of leadership scale developed for this thesis, multiple regression analyses were conducted to test hypotheses concerning direct predictors of servant leader preference, and bootstrap analyses were used to test the mediation hypotheses. Additional exploratory analyses included data on the dichotomous choice of the servant leader versus the other leadership styles presented. The results of this study showed limited support that personal characteristics and values are useful in predicting servant leadership preference. Nevertheless, some insights were gained regarding personal characteristics that predicted preference for servant leadership, particularly with regard to proactive personality. In addition, the findings clarified the relationship between co-production of leadership beliefs (IFTs) and prototypical ILTs and anti-prototypical ILTs. Followers who held strong co-production of leadership beliefs also held prototypical ILTs. Conversely, those who held weaker co-production of leadership beliefs held anti-prototypical ILTs. Results suggest that although the characteristics examined in this study were not strong predictors of preference for servant leadership, some characteristics are important and should be examined further. Additional research in this area will expand our understanding of how follower characteristics and context impact preference for a leadership style, allowing for a more holistic understanding of the leadership process.
Leaders face new challenges as they cope with changes in culture, technology and the workplace. In this edited volume, based on a conference at Claremont, scholars of leadership studies from three continents discuss the latest psychological research on interpersonal leader-follower relations. The book tackles the impact of distance - physical, interpersonal and social - on our organizations, governments and societies.
The majority of leadership theories and studies have tended to emphasize the personal background, personality traits, perceptions, and actions of leaders. From this perspective, the followers have been viewed as recipients or moderators of the leader's influence, and as vehicles for the actualization of the leader's vision, mission or goals. One of the major challengers of this dominant view was the late James R. Meindl. As an alternative to the leader-centric perspective on leadership, Meindl offered a follower-centric approach that views both leadership and its consequences as largely constructed by followers and hence influenced by followers' cognitive processes and inter-follower social influence processes. As a tribute to Jim Meindl and his contributions to the field of leadership studies, Information Age Publishing is releasing a book on follower-centered approaches to leadership. The book covers a wide variety of perspectives that acknowledge the active roles of followers in the leadership process. These include the psychoanalytical perspective, leadership categorization theory, social identity theory, the shared leadership approach, attribution of charisma through social networks, the role of the media in constructing images of the leader, the social construction of followership, vision implementation by followers and a post modern approach to followership. It is hoped that the volume will provoke readers to reflect upon and extend Jim Meindl's seminal work on followership. ars and practitioners curious about the nature of research on leadership, both those with much research exposure and those new to the field.
Using Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) as an explanatory framework, the present research seeks to assess the influence of "proactive behaviour congruence" between leader and follower, on the quality of their trust relationship. It further explores whether tie strength moderates the relation between leader-follower "proactive behaviour congruence" and trust. Finally, it attempts to understand how the resulting trust between the leader-follower dyad influences their affective relationship and the employees' choice to remain silent or speak-up. A combination of a vignette study (study1) and a cross-sectional field study (study2) were employed to test the research hypotheses. Results of Study 1 show dyadic proactive behaviour congruence is positively related to trust and positive affect; whereas dyadic incongruence is negatively related to trust and positive affect. The field study (study 2) revealed that high leader-follower proactive behaviour congruence is positively related to trust; whereas incongruence and low leader-follower proactive behaviour congruence is negatively related to trust. Tie strength moderates the relationship between "proactive behaviour congruence" and trust, in that it increases trust when there is a mismatch of perception or when congruence is low. Finally, acquiescent and defensive silence are negatively associated with trust while there was no significant relationship between trust and either voice or prosocial silence. The research extends the contention that social identity matching plays an important role in trust development and that identification is a distal antecedent of affect and employee silence. One implication of the findings is that identity congruence is an important factor in the leader-follower sense-making process. Repercussions for managers and leaders are expanded and several lines of future research are identified.
Presenting a follower-centered perspective on leadership, this book focuses on followers as the direct determinant of leadership effects because it is generally through follower reactions and behaviors that leadership attempts succeed or fail. Therefore, leadership theory needs to be articulated with a theory of how followers create meaning from leadership acts and how this meaning helps followers self-regulate in specific contexts. In this book, an attempt is made to develop such a theory, maintaining that the central construct in this process is the self-identity of followers. In developing this theoretical perspective, the authors draw heavily from several areas of research and theory. The most critical constructs do not come directly from the leadership literature, but from social and cognitive theory pertaining to follower's self-identity, self-regulatory processes, motivation, values, cognitions, and emotions and perceptions of social justice. Leaders may have profound effects on these aspects of followers and it is by analyzing such indirect, follower-mediated leadership effects that most ideas regarding leadership theory and practice are developed. Due to its broad theoretical focus, this book is relevant to a number of audiences. The authors' principal concern is with the development of leadership theory and the practice of leadership making the book relevant to audiences in management, applied psychology, and social psychology. They have tried to clearly define key constructs and provide practical examples so that the book could be accessible to advanced undergraduate students. However, the diversity of the underlying theoretical literatures and the complexity of the framework developed also make the book appropriate for graduate courses in those disciplines, and for readers with a professional interest in leadership theory or practice.
Recent ethical scandals in organizations are often cited when pointing to leaders as the culprits who foster corruption in their organization; however, little empirical work examines the individual processes through which leaders may influence follower ethical decision-making and behavior. Drawing from principles of social cognitive theory and self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1986, 1997), moral self-regulatory capacities are presented as a means by which leaders may influence followers. Specifically, I hypothesize that leader influence on follower (un)ethical behavior is mediated through follower ethical efficacy beliefs and moral disengagement processes. I also suggest that ethical efficacy interacts with ethical leadership to influence behavior. Finally, I propose that the mediating influence of moral disengagement is moderated by ethical efficacy beliefs. Using an experimental manipulation and a sample drawn from a military context, this study examines the influence of leaders on follower ethical efficacy, moral disengagement and subsequent behavior. Results indicate that leader behavior influences the ethical efficacy beliefs of followers. Findings also show that moral disengagement mediates the relationship between leader behavior and follower (un)ethical behavior. However, moderated-mediation analyses show that indirect effects of moral disengagement depend upon levels of follower ethical efficacy beliefs. Theoretical and practical implications for ethical leadership and ethical decision-making research are discussed, and directions for future research are recommended.