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The Standard Oil Company emerged out of obscurity in the 1860s to capture 90 percent of the petroleum refining industry in the United States during the Gilded Age. John D. Rockefeller, the company’s founder, organized the company around an almost religious dedication to principles of efficiency. Economic success masked the dark side of efficiency as Standard Oil dumped oil waste into public waterways, filled the urban atmosphere with acrid smoke, and created a consumer safety crisis by selling kerosene below congressional standards. Local governments, guided by a desire to favor the interests of business, deployed elaborate engineering solutions to tackle petroleum pollution at taxpayer expense rather than heed public calls to abate waste streams at their source. Only when refinery pollutants threatened the health of the Great Lakes in the twentieth century did the federal government respond to a nascent environmental movement. Organized around the four classical elements at the core of Standard Oil’s success (earth, air, fire, and water), Refining Nature provides an ecological context for the rise of one of the most important corporations in American history.
Forty-five years before the drilling of the famous 1859 Colonel Drake oil well in Pennsylvania, oil was produced and marketed from salt brine wells dug in southeast Ohio. The oil was bottled and sold as a cure-all medicine, Seneca Oil. In 1860, one of the first oil fields in Ohio was discovered approximately 10 miles southeast of these wells. The 1885 discovery of the giant Lima-Indiana oil field set off the oil boom of northwest Ohio, a period of land speculation and rapid oil field development that lasted over 20 years and propelled Ohio into the leading oil-producing state from 1895 to 1903. John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil of Cleveland built storage tanks, pipelines, and a refinery near Lima. The Ohio Oil Company, now Marathon Oil, was active in the area and still maintains an office in Findlay. The Bremen oil field was discovered in south-central Ohio in 1907, setting off another oil boom, which included drilling within the city limits.