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Sociology as a social science refers to the systematic study of the development, structure, and functioning of society. In the last two centuries sociologists analysed many facets of their own societies, in the more general context of observing the causes and consequences of the transition from traditional pre-industrial life to modern societies. The fundamental postulate of sociology is that human beings act not by their own free decisions taken rationally, but under the influence of history and culture, and the expectations and demands of others: human beings are both the products and the makers of their societies. During the 20th century, sociologists have been particularly interested in the influence of role, status, class, and power on experience and behaviour, in the family and in the community; in the factors which contribute to cohesion and conflict; in social structure and social stratification; and in social problems such as crime, drug addiction, and domestic violence.
In the fall of 1983, we began to organize a symposium entitled "General Social Psychological Theories of Group Behavior." Our goal was to encourage the extension and application of basic current social psychology to group behavior. The symposium was presented in the spring of 1984 at the Eastern Psychological Association convention in Baltimore and the interest that it generated led to discussions with colleagues and friends about similar efforts by social psychologists, eventually resulting in the present book. Some clarification about the contents is in order. First, the theories presented here are clearly social psychological in scope and level of analysis, as discussed in the Introduction (Chapter 1). However, we are not trying to encompass sociological, anthropological, political, or historical theoretical approaches to group behavior. Second, while the theories comprise a wide-ranging and representative, if not quite exhaustive, selection of social psychological theories of group behavior, there are some interesting and general perspectives that are not represented. For example, one perspective that is conspicuous by its absence is some variant of learning theory. Aside from the rare, notable exception (e.g., Buss, 1979), little work currently is being done on group behavior from a learning theoretic perspective. Our inclusion or exclusion of a theory reflects our judgment regarding its currency and accessibility to social psychological researchers.
The readings collected in Organizational Sociology are organized so as to direct attention to the six major theoretical traditions which have emerged since the 1960s to guide research and interpretation of organizational structure and performance. The traditions reviewed are: Contingency theory, Resource dependence. Population and Community ecology, Transactions costs economics, Neo-Marxist theory and Institutional Theory. Major statements of each theory are presented together with examples of related empirical research. A concluding section provides examples of recent attempts to combine and integrate two or more of these theories, as analysts attempt to account for some aspects of organization. Rather than pitting one perspective against another, contemporary analysts are more likely to selectively combine elements from several theories in order to better understand the phenomenon of interest.
The Group in Society meets the challenges of teaching courses on small groups by revealing the full complexity of small groups and their place in society. It shows students the value of learning how to carefully study a group's history and context, rather than merely learning a fixed set of group participation skills. This text brings together disparate theories and research (from communication, social psychology, organizational and managerial studies, and sociology) in a way that helps students make sense of a complex body of scholarship on groups. Features & Benefits Part I – Theorizing Groups: builds a strong theoretical foundation, exploring social theory and the group, forming and joining groups, the life and death of the group, and changing society through group life Part II – Understanding Groups in Context: explores the histories, purposes, memberships of a variety of groups—including juries, families, executive committees, study groups, and political action groups—thus enabling the student reader to speak clearly about group formation, norms, roles, tasks, and relationships. Detailed end-of-chapter case studies explicitly connect with the concepts, theories, and empirical findings introduced in each respective chapter; examples include the powerful group bonds of the modern terrorist cell; the wired network of groups in the anti-Globalization movement; and the deliberation of a jury in a murder trial Teaching & Learning Ancillaries Teaching resources are available at http://groupinsociety.la.psu.edu/ and include chapter summaries, discussion questions, and practical applications; a sample course schedule; Embedded Systems Framework PowerPoint slides; group project assignments, group project worksheets, and a group project description and contract; and links to useful Web resources such as small group teaching resources and active wikis on small groups. An open-access student study site at www.sagepub.com/gastilstudy features e-flashcards, practice quizzes, and other resources to help students enhance their comprehension and improve their grade.
Adler, Alfred - the psychiatrist whose influential system of individual psychology introduced the term inferiority feeling/complex. He developed a flexible, supportive psychotherapy to direct those emotionally disabled by inferiority feelings toward maturity, common sense, and social usefulness. Adler maintained a strong awareness of social problems, and this served as a principal motivation in his work. From his earliest years as a physician he stressed consideration of the patient in relation to his total environment, and he began developing a humanistic, holistic approach to human problems. Adler explored psychopathology within the context of general medicine and in 1902 became associated with Sigmund Freud. Gradually, differences between the two became irreconcilable, notably after the appearance of Adler's Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Psychical Compensation, in which he suggested that persons try to compensate psychologically for a physical disability and its attendant feeling of inferiority.
If one schematically compares the three principal tendencies in psychotherapy (Freudian, Jungian, Adlerian) with regard to the direction in which their central thought leads, one could say: - The analytical method of Sigmund Freud looks for the causae efficientes, the causes of the later behavioural disturbances. Alfred Adler considers and treats the initial situation with regard to a causa finalis and both see in the drives the causae materiales. In Carl Gustav Jung's case the term 'synthesis' is based on his abandonment of the causal thinking of the alternative psychological methods of treatment. Jungian psychotherapy, therefore, is not an analytical procedure in the usual meaning of this term. Whatever the differences among Freud's, Jung's and Adler's extensive works on the therapeutic methodologies; scientists, artists, thinkers and practitioners accept the great importance of Adler's, Freud's and Jung's studies for medicine, psychology, anthropology, religion, art, history, literature, etc.
In recent years economics has been the subject of increasingly severe criticism. It has failed both to predict and to counteract the economic crisis now aftlicting nearly the whole Western world. Economic life is more disrupted than ever: - the rate of inflation has risen alarmingly - unemployment has not been as high since the 1930s - economic growth is stagnating - there is increasing opposition to the inequality in the distribution of income and wealth, on anational scale as weIl as in the world at large - the process of economic integration (EEC, GATT, UNCTAD) is being thwarted - programmes of economic development in the third world have not produced the desired effects - etcetera. Obviously, it would not be fair to put the blame for the crisis on economic science. But the present predicament does call for serious consideration of the !imitations of economic explanation. Among the social sciences, economics is unquestionably the most advanced discipline. Its very sophistication, however, leads it to abstract from social phenomena such as norms, institutions, power, conflict and social change. Thus the manifest influence of sociological variables on the course of economic processes remains hidden. Dominating this book as a drumbeat is the conviction held by the several authors that a c1earer grasp of the current problems may be obtained if economists and sociologists are prepared to co-operate more closely. An interdisciplinary approach is warranted; the distinction between the social sciences should be less sharply drawn.
Decisions, Values and Groups, Volume 1 contains the proceedings of the First Interdisciplinary Conference of the Behavioral Sciences Division of the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, held at the University of New Mexico in 1957. The papers explore the roles of decisions, values, and groups in the behavioral sciences and cover topics ranging from the use of mathematical models in decision making to the contribution of the laboratory to the study of individual differences. Theoretical contributions to small group research are also discussed. This book is comprised of 22 chapters and begins with an overview of the merging of mathematical and statistical techniques with the empirical method in the study of behavior, as well as the place of decisions, values, and groups in behavioral science research. The reader is then introduced to the applications of mathematical models to decision processes, with particular reference to the automation of decision making. The following chapters focus on conceptualizations and designs for research in values and evaluative processes; theoretical aspects of small group research; and psychodynamic patterns of behavior; and special problems in the military. A non-introspective approach to the study of human motivation is described. This volume will be of interest to behavioral scientists and social scientists.
Ethos takes account of the character, sentiment, manners, moral nature, or guiding beliefs of a person, group, or institution and the predominant characteristics of a racial culture. In rhetoric, this is the speakers' or writer's character or emotions, articulated in the attempt to persuade an audience. Ethos is distinguished from pathos, which is the emotion the speaker or writer hopes to induce in the audience. The two concepts were well known in a broader sense by ancient Classical authors, who used pathos when referring to the violent emotions and ethos to mean the calmer ones. Ethology deals with the behaviour in a natural environment and investigates the development of systems of morals; now more generally, the science of human character. Ethology is particularly concerned with the animal's interactions with others of the same species and the function of behaviour and how the evolution of behaviour has been influenced by natural selection.