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The possibility of extending the laser principle into the hard x-ray region above a few keV depends upon the ability of a pump to create the critical density of population inversion for which gain overcomes loss by absorption. Although this critical density decreases with the wavelength of the radiation to be stimulated, the power required to generate it depends upon the lifetime of the state being pumped. The lifetimes of inner-shell vacancies of atoms are very short. Nuclear states, on the other hand, have much longer lifetimes, ranging from fractions of picoseconds to millennia. Moreover, in the so-called recoilless or Moessbauer transitions of nuclear isomers, it was observed that the resonance cross section often exceeds the nonresonant absorption cross section by several orders of magnitude: just the condition for lasing in an inverted population. If, other things being equal, the absorber foil of a Moessbauer experiment contained an excess of excited states, then, instead of the absorption dip normally observed at resonance, there would be an increase of intensity, and amplification by stimulated emission would be achieved. The problem in making a gamma-ray laser is, therefore, simply that of obtaining an inverted population without inhibiting the Moessbauer effect. Research on this problem is reviewed.
The development of a gamma-ray laser has stood as a formidable challenge to science and scientists for more than thirty years. In that time visible lasers have become commonplace in everyday life, appearing in science, surgery, supermarket and, through the compact disc, sound. No less remarkable has been the march toward ever increasing photon energies, now reaching soft X-rays. Still, the ultimate goal of the coherent production of gamma-rays remains unfulfilled, despite the recognition of its promise so early after the invention of the ruby laser. The strongly interdisciplinary nature of the problem requires a fusion of concepts from traditionally unrelated fields like quantum electronics and nuclear physics and this has provided both the challenge and the attraction. From this intriguing combination it is understandable that for many the gamma-ray laser has become more than just a topic of research, but instead of life-long goal.
This book explains the emergence of a profoundly new understanding of the fundamental forces of Nature.
This new edition of the methods and instrumentation used in the detection of ionizing radiation has been revised and updated to reflect recent advances. It covers modern engineering practice, provides useful design information and contains an up-to-date review of the literature.
Nuclear material changes its form and properties as it moves through the nuclear fuel cycle, from one facility to another. Each step of the fuel cycle or each use of the material will inevitably leave its mark. The science of determining the history of a sample of nuclear material through the study of these characteristics is known as nuclear forensics. While nuclear forensic analysis has normally been associated with investigations and prosecutions in the contextof trafficking of nuclear materials or nuclear terrorism, it had wider applications in in national security contexts, such as nuclear non-proliferation, disarmament, and arms control. The New Nuclear Forensics is the first book to give a definitive guide to this broader definition of nuclear forensic analysis. This book describes the various methods used in nuclear forensics, giving first a broad introduction to the process followed by details of relevant measurement techniques and procedures. In each case, the advantages and limitations are outlined. To put these methods in context, the book also recounts the history of the discipline anddescribes the diverse contemporary applications of nuclear forensics.