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Cladistic analyses of morphological data support a monophyletic group for Polypedates but do not support a monophyletic group for Rhacophorus. Five groups of Rhacophorus are recognized:(1) Group I: R. appendiculatus; R. verrucosus; R. bisacculus; R. everetti; R. baliogaster and R. cavirostris. DIAGNOSIS: post cloacal region with tubercles and/or papillae; skin on dorsum with glandular warts; tip of fingers and toes round; webbing between fingers III-IV small; dermal ridge running along outer edge of fourth finger crenulated; presence of numerous small papillae on heel; dermal ridge running along outer edge of tarsus crenulated; and webbing on toes medium or large. (2) Group II: R. jarujini; R. lateralis; R. turpes; R. edentulus; R. monticola and R. poecilonotus. DIAGNOSIS: presence of two papillae on heel; inner metatarsal tubercle elongate; and webbing between toe I-II large or complete.(3) Group III: R. hoanglienensis; R. orlovi; R. margaritifer; R. gauni; R. bimaculatus; R. angulirostris; R. baluensis; R. calcaneus and R. pleurostictus. DIAGNOSIS: absence of vomerine ridge; dermal ridge along forearm smooth; absence of dermal ridge or flap running along outer edge of tarsus; webbing between fingers II-III small; and webbing between toe II-III complete.(4) Group IV: R. reinwardtii; R. nigropalmatus; R. malabaricus; R. exechopygus; R. prominanus; R. dulitensis; R. htunwini; R. kio; R. bipunctatus; R. rhodopus; R. annamensis; R. pardalis; R. harrissoni; R. fasciatus; R. rufipes and R. robinsoni. DIAGNOSIS: distance from tip of snout to nostril equal to distance from nostril to eyes; presence of dermal flap along forearm; webbing between fingers II-III almost complete or complete; webbing between fingers III-IV complete; presence of dermal flap running along outer edge of fourth finger; presence of ridge or flap on heel; webbing on toes complete; presence of supra-cloacal fold or flap; post cloacal region with ridge or flap. (5) Group V: R. dennysi; R. feae; R. maximus; R. schlegelii; R. dorsoviridis; R. viridis; R. moltrechti; R. arboreus; R. burmanus; R. arvalis; R. chenfui; R. taipeianus; R. owstoni; R. minimus; R. taronensis; R. duboisi; R. dugritei; and R. omeimontis. DIAGNOSIS: head shape in dorsal view sub-elliptical or semicircular; webbing on hand small or medium; webbing between fingers II-III medium; and snout shape in lateral view round or obtuse.(6) Group VI: Polypedates: P. nasutus; P. eques; P. otilophus; P. megacephalus; P. leucomystax; P. macrotis; P. maculatus; P. zed; P. colletti; P. mutus; and P. cruciger. DIAGNOSIS: presence or absence of co-ossified skin between eyes; webbing between toes I-II long; webbing between fingers III-IV rudimentary; and tympanum shape oval.Genera names available: Group I - Aquixalus; Groups II-V currently are members of genus Rhacophorus but cladistic analysis of morphological data show that groups are different based on several morphological characters; Group III - Leptomantis; Group IV - Rhacophorus.
The phylogenetics analysis of the relationships between the members of the Raninae sensu DUBOIS (1992) was studied based on morphological data. Seventy-one taxa were included in the analyses including members of the genera Limnonectes, Amolops, Rana, Staurois and Rhacophorus. Among them, four taxa were treated as outgroup (Rana angolensis, Rana fuscigula, Limnonectes kuhlii and Rhacophorus rhodopus). A total of 241 morphological characters (123 from external morphology, 1 from tadpole and 118 from morphometry) were scored. Gap-weighting and step-matrix gap-weighting methods were adopted to code polymorphic and morphometric characters by using values of frequencies and means, respectively. The analysis was performed by using PAUP* (version 4.0b10).Results from gap-weighting coding yielded 2 equally shortest parsimonious trees with a length of 7901 steps, a CI of 0.415 and a RI of 0.3300. The tree obtained from the Neighbor-joining search has received tree length of 8029 steps, a CI of 0.4443 and a RI of 0.3102. Results from step-matrix gap-weighting coding yielded a single shortest tree with a length of 29606 steps, a CI of 0.1851 and a RI of 0.5852. The tree from Neighbor-joining search is chosen for describing the relationships among the groups.Although the aim of this study was to determine the relationships among the members of the Raninae sensu DUBOIS (1992), the results only partially support previous hypotheses of relationships within some groups. Results of the present work suggest that in further intensive phylogenetic analysis attention should be paid to Babina and Nidirana, Rana humeralis, Rana montivaga, Rana luctuosa, Rana malabarica, Odorrana and Eburana, and Sylvirana.The results demonstrate the choice among different methods for dealing with characters is important and the application of different methods to the same data produces different trees. Further, using characters on external morphology and morphometry only should not be enough to find the relationship patterns. Other kinds of data such as musculature, skeleton, chromosomes, behavior, ecology, tadpoles maybe adopted for reconstruction the phylogeny as well as the molecular data.
"A Review of the Middle American Tree Frogs of the Genus Ptychohyla" presents research on the geographic distribution of the species, habitat, competition, reproduction and development, genetic relationships, and morphological peculiarities of the Hyla, Plectrohyla, and Ptychohyla species.
Isthmohyla insolita and Exerodonta catracha are Honduran hylids of uncertain phylogenetic relationships. In this paper we present a phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear genes to study their relationships. Our results show that these species are, respectively, the sister taxon of and nested among the few available species of Plectrohyla, possibly the least studied genus of Hylini in terms of phylogenetic relationships. To solve the polyphyly of Exerodonta and Isthmohyla, both species are provisionally transferred to Plectrohyla, pending a broader phylogenetic study including all species in the genus. Consequently, Isthmohyla is restricted to a group of hylids endemic to the Isthmian highlands of Costa Rica and Panama in lower Central America. The inclusion of I. insolita in Plectrohyla implies another instance of independent evolution of terrestrial egg clutches in Hylini.
The shape and size of vertebrates is shaped by adaptive processes and phylogenetic relationships, and constrained by mechanical and developmental constraints. We quantified the diversity of the skull using geometric morphometrics, studied the shape of the oral disc of tadpoles, constructed and corrected phylogenies of the Middle American Tree frogs, a monophyletic lineage with highly diverse shapes and sizes distributed in Central and North America, and temperate Eurasia. Four major clades are identified in the Middle American Tree frogs. We measured allometric effects and assessed the independence between the evolutionary history of the larval and the adult phenotype in two different evolutionary scales: along all the Middle American tree frogs, and within one genus of frogs (Plectrohyla) restricted to a small geographic area in the mountains in Nuclear central America. At least four major shifts towards large size are identified in four genera along the whole clade of Middle American Tree frogs. Within the genus Plectrohyla, three major independent shifts towards large size were identified. Correlation between shape and size has different degrees in each of the independent size shifts. Adult phenotype seems to be shaped in some cases by phylogenetic relationships, and in other cases by adaptive processes evidenced by convergence in skull shape. Attainment of large sizes permits shape diversification and limits the occurrence of only one clade of large species in each mountain region. Different clades of small generalist species inhabit together in all geographic areas of Middle America and show low phenotypic diversification. Larval phenotypic evolution can be completely independent from adult phenotypic evolution. Species of similar frogs can have different larval forms and presumably this partitions the niches during the larval phase under strong selective pressures. Mountain habitats show the largest diversity of Middle American tree frogs, and the evolution of larvae adapted to mountain stream is proposed as the key novel feature that permitted tree frogs to diversify along mountain regions in Middle America like no other clade has been able to. Adaptations to mountain streams have appeared in different ways and independently in different genera of tree frogs.
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