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The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was one of the Seven Wonders of the World. This is the first complete catalogue of its friezes and other decorative reliefs. Detailed descriptions are illustrated by hundreds of previously unpublished photographs. Also discussed are the discovery of the Mausoleum and the controversy about who carved its friezes.
The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus restored in conformity with the recently discovered remains
*Includes pictures *Includes ancient accounts of Halicarnassus *Includes a bibliography for further reading In 353 BCE, when King Mausolus of Halicarnassus passed away, his sister and queen Artemisia was inconsolable, but she found a way to honor him through finishing a project that they had started together during his life: the construction of a mausoleum that was so marvelous it would later be considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World. She sent messengers across the ancient world to persuade the best sculptors and architects to come to southeast Anatolia to work on the king's memorial, employing only the finest craftsmen and sparing no expense in making the final resting place of Mausolus the finest tomb the world had ever seen. They labored for years, creating marvelous statues of the king's dynasty. This great monumental tomb was completed in the middle of the 4th century BCE so that the name of Mausolus would be famous forever, as indeed it has been ever since. Like one of the other wonders, the Temple of Artemis, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was huge for its type of building, being about 150 feet tall and possessing 36 columns of marble on its four sides, nine to a side. Also like the Temple of Artemis, the site of the Mausoleum includes ruins that have been excavated in modern times. Using this, an accurate scale replica has been successfully constructed in Istanbul, Turkey, and pieces of the beautiful sculpture on the Mausoleum have been retrieved. Therefore, it is one of the few Wonders that survived in some form and have directly inspired modern artists and architects. On top of it all, this is the only known major architectural Hellenistic work devoted to a secular theme (the burial of two mortals) rather than religious art dedicated to the Greek pantheon. The themes of the carvings even included many mythical enemies of the Greeks, such as the Amazons and centaurs, and the architecture was a marvel of engineering that was copied by neo-Classical buildings. The ultimate fate of the Mausoleum itself is unknown, though it was known to have survived the city's conquest by Alexander the Great in 334 BCE intact. Pirates who occupied the city in the 1st century BCE also left it unharmed, and though a series of earthquakes had reduced it to foundations by the 15th century CE, it was still intact enough to be considered a "wonder" by a Christian pilgrim, the Archbishop Eustathius of Thessalonica, in the 12th century. Unfortunately, the arrival of the Knights of St. John (the Hospitallers) in Rhodes and Bodrum spelled doom for the great structure. They used materials from it to reinforce their castle at Bodrum when it was threatened by the Turks in 1522 and burned the marble for lime, though at least they did retrieve and install the best of the sculptures in their castle. The burial chamber of Mausolus and Artemisia, which had been underground, was also looted at some point over the centuries, though husband and wife were likely cremated in the Greek fashion and buried in urns. The famous marbles were also looted in the 19th century during a three-year expedition by English archeologist Sir Charles Thomas Newton and carted off to the British Museum. Who was Mausolus, and what role did Halicarnassus serve in his kingdom? What were the city's origins, and what occurred after the mausoleum was completed? And how, exactly, did it come to be considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World? Halicarnassus: The History and Legacy of the Ancient Greek City and Home to One of the Seven Wonders of the World looks at the city and its most famous structure. Along with pictures depicting important people, places, and events, you will learn about Halicarnassus like never before.
Figural and non-figural supports are a ubiquitous feature of Roman marble sculpture; they appear in sculptures ranging in size from miniature to colossal and of all levels of quality. At odds with modern ideas about beauty, completeness, and visual congruence, these elements, especially non-figural struts, have been dismissed by scholars as mere safeguards for production and transport. However, close examination of these features reveals the tastes and expectations of those who commissioned, bought, and displayed marble sculptures throughout the Mediterranean in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Drawing on a large body of examples, Greek and Latin literary sources, and modern theories of visual culture, this study constitutes the first comprehensive investigation of non-figural supports in Roman sculpture. The book overturns previous conceptions of Roman visual values and traditions and challenges our understanding of the Roman reception of Greek art.
The Naturalis historia by Pliny the Elder provided Renaissance scholars, artists and architects with details of ancient architectural practice and long-lost architectural wonders - material that was often unavailable elsewhere in classical literature. Pliny's descriptions frequently included the dimensions of these buildings, as well as details of their unusual construction materials and ornament. This book describes, for the first time, how the passages were interpreted from around 1430 to 1580, that is, from Alberti to Palladio. Chapters are arranged chronologically within three interrelated sections - antiquarianism; architectural writings; drawings and built monuments - thereby making it possible for the reader to follow the changing attitudes to Pliny over the period. The resulting study establishes the Naturalis historia as the single most important literary source after Vitruvius's De architectura.
This beautifully illustrated book represents the first full publication of the most elaborate metal vessel from the ancient world yet discovered. Found in an undisturbed Macedonian tomb of the late 4th century B.C., the volute krater is a tour de force of highly sophisticated methods of bronze working. An unusual program of iconography informs every area of the vessel. Snakes with copper and silver inlaid stripes frame the rising handles, wrapping their bodies around masks of underworld deities. On the shoulder sit four cast bronze figures: on one side a youthful Dionysos with an exhausted maenad, on the other a sleeping Silenos and a maenad handling a snake. In the major repousse frieze on the body a bearded hunter is associated with Dionysian figures. What was the function of this extraordinary object? And what is the meaning of the intricate iconography? The krater is placed in its Macedonian archaeological context as an heirloom of the descendants of the man named in the Thessalian inscription on its rim, and in its art-historical context as a highly elaborated, early-4th-century version of a metal type known in Athens by about 470 B.C.
The frames of classical art are often seen as marginal to the images that they surround. Traditional art history has tended to view framing devices as supplementary 'ornaments'. Likewise, classical archaeologists have often treated them as tools for taxonomic analysis. This book not only argues for the integral role of framing within Graeco-Roman art, but also explores the relationship between the frames of classical antiquity and those of more modern art and aesthetics. Contributors combine close formal analysis with more theoretical approaches: chapters examine framing devices across multiple media (including vase and fresco painting, relief and free-standing sculpture, mosaics, manuscripts and inscriptions), structuring analysis around the themes of 'framing pictorial space', 'framing bodies', 'framing the sacred' and 'framing texts'. The result is a new cultural history of framing - one that probes the sophisticated and playful ways in which frames could support, delimit, shape and even interrogate the images contained within.
The Handbook of Greek Sculpture aims to provide a detailed examination of current research and directions in the field. Bringing together an international cast of contributors from Greece, Italy, France, Great Britain, Germany, and the United States, the volume incorporates new areas of research, such as the sculptures of Messene and Macedonia, sculpture in Roman Greece, and the contribution of Greek sculptors in Rome, as well as important aspects of Greek sculpture like techniques and patronage. The written sources (literary and epigraphical) are explored in dedicated chapters, as are function and iconography and the reception of Greek sculpture in modern Europe. Inspired by recent exhibitions on Lysippos and Praxiteles, the book also revisits the style and the personal contributions of the great masters.