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MM-wave/sub-Terahertz (THz) signal generation, radiation and detection has become increasingly attractive due to its fast-growing applications in spectroscopy, radar, biomedical and security imaging as well as high-speed wireless communication.Silicon technology, in one hand, offering high-density signal processing capabilities due to aggressive scaling of its feature size, and on the other hand, allowing integration of mm-wave/THz antenna elements owing to their shrunk footprint at these bands, is well-suited for implementation of fully-integrated multi-antenna mm-wave/THz wireless System-on-Chips (SoC's).Performance of such system is dominantly governed by the quality and efficiency of signal generation, transmission/reception and detection. Passive and active components as means of realizing these functionalities must be optimized for operation at these frequency range. However, excessive loss of on-chip passive components and limited gain and output power of transistors at such high frequencies demand novel passive and active structures. Furthermore, high level of integration implies that the co-design of front-end components leads to a better end-to-end performance, thus a holistic design methodology must be employed. Radiation characteristics of the wireless signal must also be engineered to improve its transmission quality. For example, circularly polarized radiation is found to be a viable choice for many imaging and communication applications by exhibiting excellent robustness against de-polarization effects.In this dissertation, silicon realization of on-chip waveguides, as low loss mediums for high-frequency wave propagation, is explored and implementations of low-loss cavity-backed passives are discussed. Furthermore, a silicon-integrated IMPATT diode, together with its fabrication and modeling is introduced as a solution for obtaining active behavior beyond fmax of transistors. Next, a high-power/efficiency mm-wave circularly-polarized cavity-backed radiator, employing a multi-port multi-function passive network as resonator, power combiner, and antenna, is introduced. Necessary conditions for robust operation of such multi-port oscillators/radiators are also derived. Fabricated in a 0.13mum SiGe BiCMOS process, the prototype chip achieves 14.2dBm EIRP, -99.3dBc/Hz phase noise at 1MHz offset, and 5.2% DC-to-EIRP conversion efficiency which is the highest reported value among silicon-based radiators not using silicon lens or substrate processing.Finally, a 210GHz low noise amplifier (LNA) is presented to address the detection challenges. This LNA, achieves 18dB of gain, with less than 12dB noise-figure and 3dB bandwidth of more than 15GHz, thereby showing best performance metrics among prior work. This is achieved by incorporating circuit and EM techniques enabling simultaneous optimization of stable gain-, noise- and bandwidth-performance parameters at this frequency range.
The millimeter-wave (MMW) to far-infrared (FIR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum has unique features making it attractive for applications in spectroscopy for detection of harmful chemicals, breath analyses, standoff detection, material inspection, as well as tera-bit wireless/wireline communications. Even though the first attempts to tap these regions of spectrum date back over a century, this non-ionizing modality has eluded wide utilizations due to difficulties in the realization of efficient signal generation and detection systems, giving birth to the term “THz gap”. III-V technology based implementations are costly, bulky, and unfit for widespread deployments. Although CMOS technology has emerged as a means for the realization of capable and affordable RF systems, the conventional mode of relying on increased device speed over time to improve system performance is no longer viable in an era where device scaling provides marginal to zero improvements in high frequency performance (fT/f max). To close the THz signal generation and FIR detection gap of silicon technologies, therefore,requires innovations not only at circuit but also across device and system domains. This cross-domain investigation to bridge the THz/FIR gap of CMOS technologies is the main topic of this dissertation. First, techniques to achieve sensitive electronic detection up to 10 THz for the first time in a standard CMOS process are discussed. The 10-THz detector is 2x smaller than that of a cutting edge 12-μm microbolometer technology, allowing a higher pixel density without requiring any thermal isolation. Second, noise variation resilient THz detection is demonstrated using transittime optimized P-N junction diodes formed in CMOS. Furthermore, a physics and EM modeling based technique is developed to achieve consistent and reliable results in MMW wafer-level measurements. The effectiveness of the proposed technique is experimentally demonstrated through measurements of a Schottky barrier diode in CMOS with fT of 4.8 THz which is the highest reported for any diodes in silicon technologies. Third, device and circuit innovations through symmetric- and asymmetric varactors are demonstrated to mitigate THz signal generation limitations of silicon technologies. Fundamental principles and harmonic shaping properties of these varactors are demonstrated through multipliers operating between 0.4-1.5 THz. The proposed architectures can reach record output power, conversion efficiency, and operating bandwidths in standard CMOS. Last, major building blocks of an integrated THz endoscopic system fabricated in a 65-nm CMOS process are demonstrated. The transmitter chain is capable of operating between 0.4-0.45 THz and can deliver milliwatt level output power while requiring an input signal at 34.5 GHz. This is the highest frequency and highest power, fully integrated TX chain reported to date in CMOS technologies with the highest reported DC-to-THz conversion efficiency of any CMOS transmit chain operating at 0.4 THz.
This book contains detailed descriptions and associated discussions regarding different generation, detection and signal processing techniques for the electrical and optical signals within the THz frequency spectrum (0.3–10 THz). It includes detailed reviews of some recently developed electronic and photonic devices for generating and detecting THz waves, potential materials for implementing THz passive circuits, some newly developed systems and methods associated with THz wireless communication, THz antennas and some cutting-edge techniques associated with the THz signal and image processing. The book especially focuses on the recent advancements and several research issues related to THz sources, detectors and THz signal and image processing techniques; it also discusses theoretical, experimental, established and validated empirical works on these topics. The book caters to a very wide range of readers from basic science to technological experts as well as students.
A variety of commercial and defense applications are expected to have sub-terahertz (THz) and mm-wave integrated circuits in the near future. Silicon (Si) technologies partly meet the demands but are limited in their power handling capability. III-V technologies, in particular InP, offer higher output power but fall short of their Si counterparts if it comes to integration density and complexity. Thus, research on hetero-integration of Si with InP has gained increasing interest. This work focuses on MMIC signal sources as important building blocks that are based on FBH’s 0.8 μm InP-DHBT transferred-substrate (TS) process, offering an InP-DHBT as well as an InP-on-BiCMOS version. This process is unique and provides interesting possibilities to realize integrated circuits in the frequency range between 100 GHz and more than 300 GHz. First, fundamental sources at 96 GHz and 197 GHz are presented. They deliver +9 dBm and 0 dBm output power with 25% and 0.5% overall DC-to-RF efficiency, respectively. Furthermore, 162 GHz and 270 GHz push-push sources are demonstrated utilizing an InP-on-BiCMOS process, which achieve -4.5 dBm and -9.5 dBm output power. Subsequently, multiplier-based signal sources are demonstrated including a full G-band (140-220 GHz) frequency doubler, which delivers +8.2 dBm at 180 GHz and more than +5 dBm in the range 160-200 GHz. The doubler circuit exhibits a power efficiency of 16% in this frequency range. Also, the highest frequency is reached by a wideband 328 GHz quadrupler, with -7 dBm output power at 325 GHz and 0.5% DC-to-RF efficiency. The final part is devoted to hetero-integrated circuits and the necessary design considerations. Two 250 GHz and 330 GHz sources are demonstrated that deliver -1.6 dBm and -12 dBm output power, respectively. These are the first hetero-integrated signal sources in this frequency range reported so far.
The purpose of this book is two-fold. First, the various different methods of accessing the THz range are discussed, with a view to convince the reader that there have been qualitative and significant improvements over older, more conventional techniques. The text makes it clear that these improvements enable practical "real-world" applications of THz technology, in a manner which would not have been possible before. Second, the demonstrations and feasibility tests described serve as compelling evidence of the utility of such devices. Due to the unique characteristics of THz radiation and its interaction with materials, these devices have substantial advantages over other competing technologies in a number of different areas.
In recent years, millimeter-wave (mm-wave) and terahertz (THz) frequency bands haverevealed a great potential for many applications such as medical and biological imaging,quality control, and very-high-speed communications. The main reasons for this interestare the many interesting properties of THz and millimeter waves, such as their ability toharmlessly penetrate through matter or the broad spectrum available at these frequencies.Targeted applications require energy efficient signal sources with high power outputand, for some applications, low phase noise. In addition, the increasing demand in mmwave/THz applications requires the use of a cost-optimized, high-performance, and verylarge scale integration (VLSI) technologies, such as the 28nm CMOS FD-SOI technology.In this context, this thesis proposes an innovative solution for mm-wave and THz frequencygeneration in CMOS technology: the injection locked distributed oscillator (ILDO). Thework presented in this manuscript includes the detailed analysis of the state-of-the-artand its limitations, the detailed theoretical study of the proposed millimeter-waves bandsolution, the development of a specific design methodology in CMOS technology as well asthe design of technological demonstrators. The several 28nm FDSOI integrated distributedoscillators at 134 GHz and respectively 200 GHz have demonstrated the feasibility ofmm-wave and THz signal sources with high-energy efficiency, high output power, and lowphase noise in a VLSI CMOS technology. Finally, the injection locking capability of suchdistributed oscillators has been demonstrated experimentally paving the way for a futuresilicon-based fully integrated THz systems. The proposed circuits are as of today thehighest oscillation frequency solutions demonstrated in a 28nm CMOS Silicon technology.
RF and mm-Wave Power Generation in Silicon presents the challenges and solutions of designing power amplifiers at RF and mm-Wave frequencies in a silicon-based process technology. It covers practical power amplifier design methodologies, energy- and spectrum-efficient power amplifier design examples in the RF frequency for cellular and wireless connectivity applications, and power amplifier and power generation designs for enabling new communication and sensing applications in the mm-Wave and THz frequencies. With this book you will learn: Power amplifier design fundamentals and methodologies Latest advances in silicon-based RF power amplifier architectures and designs and their integration in wireless communication systems State-of-the-art mm-Wave/THz power amplifier and power generation circuits and systems in silicon Extensive coverage from fundamentals to advanced design topics, focusing on various layers of abstraction: from device modeling and circuit design strategy to advanced digital and mixed-signal architectures for highly efficient and linear power amplifiers New architectures for power amplifiers in the cellar and wireless connectivity covering detailed design methodologies and state-of-the-art performances Detailed design techniques, trade-off analysis and design examples for efficiency enhancement at power back-off and linear amplification for spectrally-efficient non-constant envelope modulations Extensive coverage of mm-Wave power-generation techniques from the early days of the 60 GHz research to current state-of the-art reconfigurable, digital mm-Wave PA architectures Detailed analysis of power generation challenges in the higher mm-Wave and THz frequencies and novel technical solutions for a wide range for potential applications, including ultrafast wireless communication to sensing, imaging and spectroscopy Contributions from the world-class experts from both academia and industry
Advances in silicon technologies and emerging on-chip antennas have provided a reliable solution for designing low-cost, high-speed integrated circuits. The birth of 5G systems and the definition of the 6G standard are evidence of the increasing interest in the exploration of terahertz frequencies for ultra-broadband wireless communication systems. Terahertz frequencies promise unlicensed wide-spectrum bandwidth for the next generation of wireless communication links. Traditionally, terahertz systems have been realized optically by exploiting a photoconductive antenna with a femtosecond laser source. However, laser-based terahertz systems suffer from high cost, bulky measurement setups, and high power consumption, making them impractical for certain applications in communication, sensing, and imaging. In contrast, the transistor speed in silicon-based technologies has been improving over the last several decades, making electronic terahertz systems a low-cost and efficient alternative for optical systems. However, one of the main challenges in realizing efficient integrated terahertz systems in silicon is the generation and detection of signals beyond the maximum oscillation frequency (fmax) of a transistor, which does not exceed hundreds of gigahertz. Considering all the progress made in electronic terahertz systems, researchers have remained pessimistic regarding the feasibility of terahertz propagation over relatively long distances due to high atmospheric absorption loss. This issue is even more critical for silicon-based terahertz radiators, where the amount of radiated power is 10s of dB below that of optical terahertz systems. Therefore, most studies in the terahertz domain have been limited to short-distance setups in a lab environment. In this dissertation, a fully integrated laser-free terahertz impulse transceiver in silicon is presented that can radiate and detect arbitrary signals in millimeter-wave and terahertz bands with a 2 Hz frequency resolution. In the transmit mode, this chip radiates broadband impulses with 2.5-picosecond full width at half maximum, corresponding to a frequency comb with 1.052 terahertz bandwidth. In the receive mode, this design acts as a coherent detector that detects arbitrary signals up to 500 GHz with a peak sensitivity of -100 dBm with a 1 KHz resolution bandwidth. This receiver is utilized in conjunction with an impulse radiator to implement a dual-frequency comb spectroscopy system. A chip-to-chip dual-frequency comb is successfully measured and characterized in the 20--220 GHz frequency range. Additionally, this design can transmit picosecond impulses at 4 Gb/s data rate. Moreover, long-path terahertz communication channel characterization is introduced in the frequency range of 0.32-1.1~THz, where a specular link is created using a terahertz radiator, parabolic reflector antennas, a plane mirror, and a downconverter mixer. The terahertz channel is characterized up to a distance of 110~m. The measurement results demonstrate channel path loss, atmospheric absorption, and low-loss frequency windows suitable for long-range point-to-point wireless communication links in the terahertz regime.
The last research frontier in high frequency electronics now lies in the so-called THz (or submillimeter-wave) regime between the traditional microwave and infrared domains. Significant scientific and technical challenges within the terahertz (THz) frequency regime have recently motivated an array of new research activities. During the last few years, major research programs have emerged that are focused on advancing the state of the art in THz frequency electronic technology and on investigating novel applications of THz frequency sensing. This book serves as a detailed reference for the new THz frequency technological advances that are emerging across a wide spectrum of sensing and technology areas. Contents: THz Technology: An Overview (P H Siegel); Two-Terminal Active Devices for Terahertz Sources (G I Haddad et al.); Multiplier and Harmonic Generator Technologies for Terahertz Applications (R M Weikle II et al.); Submicron InP-Based HBTs for Ultra-High Frequency Amplifiers (M Urteaga et al.); THz Generation by Photomixing in Ultrafast Photoconductors (E R Brown); Silicon-Germanium Quantum-Cascade Lasers (R W Kelsall & R A Soref); Plasma Wave Electronics (M S Shur & V Ryzhii); T-Ray Sensing and Imaging (S P Mickan & X-C Zhang); Multistatic Reflection Imaging with Terahertz Pulses (T D Dorney et al.). Readership: Undergraduates, graduate students, academics and researchers in electrical & electronic engineering.