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Avoiding infection has always been expensive. Some human populations escaped tropical infections by migrating into cold climates but then had to procure fuel, warm clothing, durable housing, and crops from a short growing season. Waterborne infections were averted by owning your own well or supporting a community reservoir. Everyone got vaccines in rich countries, while people in others got them later if at all. Antimicrobial agents seemed at first to be an exception. They did not need to be delivered through a cold chain and to everyone, as vaccines did. They had to be given only to infected patients and often then as relatively cheap injectables or pills off a shelf for only a few days to get astonishing cures. Antimicrobials not only were better than most other innovations but also reached more of the world’s people sooner. The problem appeared later. After each new antimicrobial became widely used, genes expressing resistance to it began to emerge and spread through bacterial populations. Patients infected with bacteria expressing such resistance genes then failed treatment and remained infected or died. Growing resistance to antimicrobial agents began to take away more and more of the cures that the agents had brought.
"In May 2015, the Sixty-eighth World Health Assembly adopted the Global action plan on antimicrobial resistance, which reflects the global consensus that AMR poses a profound threat to human health. One of the five strategic objectives of the Global action plan is to strengthen the evidence base through enhanced global surveillance and research. The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance System (GLASS) has been developed to facilitate and encourage a standardized approach to AMR surveillance globally and in turn support the implementation of the Global action plan on antimicrobial resistance. This manual addresses the early phase of implementation of GLASS, focussing on surveillance of resistance in common human bacterial pathogens. The intended readership of this publication is public health professionals and health authorities responsible for national AMR surveillance. It outlines the GLASS standards and describes the road map for implementation of the system between 2015 and 2019. Further development of GLASS will be based on the lessons learnt during this period"--Publisher's description.
An accessible overview of the challenges in tackling AMR, and the economic and policy responses of the 'One Health' approach. It will appeal to policy-makers seeking to strengthen national and local polices tackling AMR, as well as students and academics who want an overview of the latest scientific evidence regarding effective AMR policies.
Summary report published as technical document with reference number: WHO/HSE/PED/AIP/2014.2.
The chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is an RNA virus that is transmitted to humans by Aedes mosquitos commonly found in tropical and subtropical countries. In humans, CHIKV causes an infection with symptoms strikingly like those of the dengue virus and Zika disease, both of which are also transmitted to humans by the same genus of mosquitos. This book delves into the history of the disease and the molecular characterization of the virus. It sheds light on modern diagnosis tools that allow unambiguous identification of CHIKV infection. In addition, this book addresses the epidemiology of chikungunya fever, the distribution and spread of the disease, and the promising approaches under consideration for preventing and treating the disease.
Infectious diseases are the leading cause of death globally, particularly among children and young adults. The spread of new pathogens and the threat of antimicrobial resistance pose particular challenges in combating these diseases. Major Infectious Diseases identifies feasible, cost-effective packages of interventions and strategies across delivery platforms to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS, other sexually transmitted infections, tuberculosis, malaria, adult febrile illness, viral hepatitis, and neglected tropical diseases. The volume emphasizes the need to effectively address emerging antimicrobial resistance, strengthen health systems, and increase access to care. The attainable goals are to reduce incidence, develop innovative approaches, and optimize existing tools in resource-constrained settings.
"Many people correctly understand that superbugs can threaten health. Superbugs are microbial organisms, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi, that resist one or more antibiotic or other antimicrobial treatments. What may be less widely understood is that the threat is global, growing, and encompasses human systems surrounding healthcare, agriculture, and the environment. In 2019, 1.3 million people around the world are estimated to have died from resistant microbes (Murray et al., 2022). This is similar to how many succumb annually to HIV/AIDS and Malaria combined (Laxminarayan, 2022). The recent coronavirus pandemic may have further exacerbated the global health challenge posed by superbugs (Rizvi & Ahammad, 2022; Adebisi et al., 2021; Rodríguez-Baño et al., 2021). By 2050, worst-case projections include annual superbug fatalities of ten million people (O'Neil, 2016). Some experts have started to refer to the increase and spread of superbugs as the overlooked or silent pandemic (Laxminarayan, 2022; UN, 2020; Mahoney et al., 2021). Other experts warn that we might be heading towards a 'post-antibiotic' era where minor infections become increasingly severe or even impossible to treat (Reardon, 2014; Kwon & Powderly, 2021). Annual economic losses related to superbugs are already estimated in the tens of billion U.S. dollars (Hall, McDonell & O'Neil, 2018). As a response to these global challenges, this book analyses and discusses ways to reduce barriers to and create opportunities for global governance of antimicrobial resistance. Or more briefly, steering against superbugs"--
For more than 50 years, low-cost antimalarial drugs silently saved millions of lives and cured billions of debilitating infections. Today, however, these drugs no longer work against the deadliest form of malaria that exists throughout the world. Malaria deaths in sub-Saharan Africaâ€"currently just over one million per yearâ€"are rising because of increased resistance to the old, inexpensive drugs. Although effective new drugs called "artemisinins" are available, they are unaffordable for the majority of the affected population, even at a cost of one dollar per course. Saving Lives, Buying Time: Economics of Malaria Drugs in an Age of Resistance examines the history of malaria treatments, provides an overview of the current drug crisis, and offers recommendations on maximizing access to and effectiveness of antimalarial drugs. The book finds that most people in endemic countries will not have access to currently effective combination treatments, which should include an artemisinin, without financing from the global community. Without funding for effective treatment, malaria mortality could double over the next 10 to 20 years and transmission will intensify.