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Animal and human societies are multifaceted. In order to understand how they have evolved, it is necessary to investigate each of the constituent facets including individual abilities and personalities, life-history traits, mating systems, demographic dynamics, gene flows, social relationships, ecology and phylogeny. By exploring the nature and evolution of macaque social organization, this book develops our knowledge of the rise of societies and their transformation during the course of evolution. Macaques are the most comprehensively studied of all monkey groups, and the 20 known species feature a broad diversity in their social relationships, making them a particularly good group for exploring the evolution of societies. This book will be of primary interest to those studying animal behaviour and primatology, but will also be useful to those involved in the study of human societies.
The genus Macaca is the most widely distributed of nonhuman primates and is found in twenty countries in Southeast Asia and North Africa. Over the comparative short time span of five million years, macaques have evolved diverse forms, from long-tailed arboreal types to robust terrestrial animals, and inhabit a variety of habitats. Although macaques are probably one of the most studied monkeys both in the wild and in captivity, data from long-term studies and pioneering work of little-known species are only just emerging. In this book, world authorities on macaques interpret recent research and present up-to-date syntheses of many aspects of macaque ecology, evolution, behavior and conservation.
This 1996 book is a synthesis of the ecology, evolution, behaviour and conservation of extant macaque species.
Judged by population size and distribution, homo sapiens are clearly the most successful primates. A close second, however, would be rhesus macaques, who have adapted to—and thrived in—such diverse environments as mountain forests, dry grasslands, and urban sprawl. Scientists have spent countless hours studying these opportunistic monkeys, but rhesus macaques have long been overshadowed in the public eye by the great apes, who, because of their greater intelligence, are naturally assumed to have more to teach us, both about other primates and about humans as well. Dario Maestripieri thinks it is high time we shelve that misperception, and with Macachiavellian Intelligence he gives rhesus macaques their rightful turn in the spotlight. The product of more than twenty years studying these fascinating creatures, Macachiavellian Intelligence caricatures a society that is as much human as monkey, with hierarchies and power struggles that would impress Machiavelli himself. High-status macaques, for instance, maintain their rank through deft uses of violence and manipulation, while altruism is almost unknown and relationships are perpetually subject to the cruel laws of the market. Throughout this eye-opening account, Maestripieri weds his thorough knowledge of macaque behavior to his abiding fascination with human society and motivations. The result is a book unlike any other, one that draws on economics as much as evolutionary biology, politics as much as primatology. Rife with unexpected connections and peppered with fascinating anecdotes, Macachiavellian Intelligence has as much to teach us about humans as it does about macaques, presenting a wry, rational, and wholly surprising view of our humanity as seen through the monkey in the mirror.
The concept of this book arises from a symposium entitled “Human-Macaque Interactions: Traditional and Modern Perspectives on Cooperation and Conflict ” organized at the 23rd Congress of the International Primatological Society, that was held in Kyoto in September 2010. The symposium highlighted the many aspects of human-macaque relations and some of the participants were invited to contribute to this volume. The volume will include about 11 chapters by a variety of international authors and some excerpts from published literature that illustrate cultural notions of macaques. Contributions from invited authors will engage with four main perspectives – traditional views of macaques, cooperative relationships between humans and macaques, current scenarios of human-macaque conflict, and how living with and beside humans has affected macaques. Authors will address these concerns through their research findings and reviews of their work on the Asian, and the lone African, macaques. ​
Long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) have a wide geographical distribution and extensively overlap with human societies across southeast Asia, regularly utilizing the edges of secondary forest and inhabiting numerous anthropogenic environments, including temple grounds, cities and farmlands. Yet despite their apparent ubiquity across the region, there are striking gaps in our understanding of long-tailed macaque population ecology. This timely volume, a key resource for primatologists, anthropologists and conservationists, underlines the urgent need for comprehensive population studies on common macaques. Providing the first detailed look at research on this underexplored species, it unveils what is currently known about the population of M. fascicularis, explores the contexts and consequences of human-macaque sympatry and discusses the innovative programs being initiated to resolve human-macaque conflict across Asia. Spread throughout the book are boxed case studies that supplement the chapters and give a valuable insight into specific field studies on wild M. fascicularis populations.
Macaque (Macaca spp.) societies represent complex adaptive systems marked by multifaceted, heterogeneous social interactions among groups members. Such dynamics allow for considerable variation to emerge with regard to social structure both within as well as across the species of this highly radiated genus of primate. Within primatology, societies are characterized by dominance styles that may be more despotic-like (i.e., generally more hierarchal) or more egalitarian (i.e., generally less hierarchal) depending on a suite of interdependent behavioral factors that tend to co-vary with each other along a spectrum of tolerance. Moreover, tolerance can be considered the most basic form of conflict management insofar that macaques simply decide to not engage in conflict with one another when competing for resources. The goals of the research presented in this dissertation were to further investigate how tolerance shapes social organization in macaques through the use of an agent-based model (ABM) while additionally exploring a robust parameter space to understand how other mechanisms, such as access to conflict information and movement behavior, may also lead to variation in interaction patterns among individuals. In the first chapter, I review major contributions made to the field of primatology through the use of ABMs. Furthermore, I present the ABM DomWorld as a general model and common ancestor that ties together over two decades of ABM research on primate social behavior into a model phylogeny. I treated 24 publications related to DomWorld as the operational taxonomic unit and documented changes in the inherent property of agents, agent behavior, as well as the research focus of the publications in order to construct a phylogentic tree of the models described therein. I took this methodological approach of relating models to demonstrate how the development of ABMs contributes to how we structure existing theory or even allow for new theoretical frameworks to emerge. That is, coming to a fuller understanding of the dynamic aspects of our research via model phylogenies helps us also understand how the theory that guides our work evolves with each subsequent iteration and adaptation of our existing models. In the second chapter, I introduce the M.A.C.S. (Macaques as A Complex System) model that I developed and created to analyze how tolerance influences social interactions among simulated macaque ("agents") groups. I programmed agents within my ABM to randomly move about and engage in lower-level (conflicts) or higher-level (escalated fights) aggression within an exclusively social space. Each society was initialized with agents having a uniform tolerance and avoidance attitude (ranging from 0 (less tolerant/avoidant) to 1 (more tolerant/avoidant)) toward one another as well as an equal probability of defeating each other when engaging in dominance interactions. Furthermore, I ran 20 replications of each unique tolerance simulation. Additionally, an agent's dominance probability of defeating another during a dominance interactions was decided through statistical procedures that incorporate both an agent's individual experience with previous conflicts, but also access to group level information about all other agents' conflict histories. I analyzed how group-level patterns of behavior emerged at different tolerance values, including the frequency of conflicts and fights between dyads that differentiated into dominant and subordinate roles and dyads whose dominance relationship remained uncertain. I found that group-level patterns of aggression that correspond well with real-world primate societies emerged in the M.A.C.S. model by simply manipulating the value of tolerance at initialization. That is, the formalizing of dominance relationships combined with an initially intolerant disposition allowed for the emergence of more frequent intense aggression among initially intolerant societies. However, lower-level aggression between uncertain ranked dyads became more frequent among initially tolerant societies, as observed in more egalitarian-like, real-world species of macaque. In the third chapter, my goal was to extend our baseline model from the previous chapter and test how variation in the information agents use to determine their dominance relationships with their interaction partners as well as the movement strategies that agents use to explore the simulation space effected group-level outcomes. I tested a social learning condition in which agents only possessed information about one's conflict history as well as information about conflicts that occurred within their social space. Thus, the social learning condition effectively leads to agents that possess different interpretations of what the actual distributions of conflict outcomes are. I also tested an individual learning condition in which agents only know about their own conflict history and nothing of the conflict occurring among other group members. Additionally, I tested two movement strategies in which agents choose another agent to aggregate towards during a movement bout (directed condition) or will move in space based on a vector calculated from the avoidance attitudes an agent has towards the other agents in its social space. Furthermore, I analyzed the interplay between these information and movement conditions. I found that decreasing the dominance information made available to agents decreased the frequency of all interactions between dominant and subordinate agents, but increased the frequency of all interactions between dyads with uncertain rank relationships. I also found that when agents utilized a cautious movement strategy there is a considerable increase in both conflicts and fights compared to the random or directed movement conditions. These findings provide further insight into how information processing and movement ecology may influence hierarchal differentiation and social structure in primate groups. While further research will incorporate social network analysis to better elucidate the causal mechanisms underlying the M.A.C.S. model, the research presented in this dissertation provides a promising step forward. Specifically, in how the abundance, acquisition, processing, and use of dominance information tied with an explicit parametrization of tolerance can be used to simulate a complex primate social system and further understand macaque social organization. This is particularly important for understudied species among the different dominance styles within the genus. Also, my work serves as a robust foundation for how we may develop the next iterations of the M.A.C.S. model in our newly presented model phylogeny. Finally, I provide further recommendations for how future iterations may implement other elements of macaque social behavior not featured in current ABMS, such as status signaling, social power, and explicit third-party conflict intervention decisions, into the M.A.C.S. model.