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The earth’s cryosphere, which includes snow, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, ice shelves, sea ice, river and lake ice, and permafrost, contains about 75% of the earth’s fresh water. It exists at almost all latitudes, from the tropics to the poles, and plays a vital role in controlling the global climate system. It also provides direct visible evidence of the effect of climate change, and, therefore, requires proper understanding of its complex dynamics. This encyclopedia mainly focuses on the various aspects of snow, ice and glaciers, but also covers other cryospheric branches, and provides up-to-date information and basic concepts on relevant topics. It includes alphabetically arranged and professionally written, comprehensive and authoritative academic articles by well-known international experts in individual fields. The encyclopedia contains a broad spectrum of topics, ranging from the atmospheric processes responsible for snow formation; transformation of snow to ice and changes in their properties; classification of ice and glaciers and their worldwide distribution; glaciation and ice ages; glacier dynamics; glacier surface and subsurface characteristics; geomorphic processes and landscape formation; hydrology and sedimentary systems; permafrost degradation; hazards caused by cryospheric changes; and trends of glacier retreat on the global scale along with the impact of climate change. This book can serve as a source of reference at the undergraduate and graduate level and help to better understand snow, ice and glaciers. It will also be an indispensable tool containing specialized literature for geologists, geographers, climatologists, hydrologists, and water resources engineers; as well as for those who are engaged in the practice of agricultural and civil engineering, earth sciences, environmental sciences and engineering, ecosystem management, and other relevant subjects.
Since its inception, the U.S. Global Change Research Program has had the policy of full and open data availability. This policy has already been implemented not only through the participating agencies but through many inter-agency mechanisms such as publications, Internet based services, and in many international settings. This fourth of a series of yearly publications represents another important step in this interagency process of making the data and information related to the Global Change Research Program available. It is particularly needed at this time since the users of this data and information have expanded from being primarily researchers to being a full mix that also includes educators, those making assessments of potential effects of global change, the commercial world, and the public as well as policy makers at all levels. One of this publication's objectives is to provide this diverse user community with a concise summary of what data has been cataloged and made newly available each year. This is being done in both this published form and in the Global Change Data and Information System on the Internet(www.gcdis.usgcrp.gov) with links to each data set, where available. Other objectives, however, are also important. These include giving recognition to the individuals and organizations who have done the important job of making the data available and providing a mechanism where the data sets used in a publication or assessment can be cited similarly to the citations now commonly used in publications to reference other publications.
The Arctic is now experiencing some of the most rapid and severe climate change on earth. Over the next 100 years, climate change is expected to accelerate, contributing to major physical, ecological, social, and economic changes, many of which have already begun. Changes in arctic climate will also affect the rest of the world through increased global warming and rising sea levels. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment was prepared by an international team of over 300 scientists, experts, and knowledgeable members of indigenous communities. The report has been thoroughly researched, is fully referenced, and provides the first comprehensive evaluation of arctic climate change, changes in ultraviolet radiation and their impacts for the region and for the world. It is illustrated in full color throughout. The results provided the scientific foundations for the ACIA synthesis report - Impacts of a Warming Arctic - published by Cambridge University Press in 2004.