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Christophe Nihan investigates the composition history of Leviticus, considered as a separate 'book' in the Torah/Pentateuch. In order to account for the distinct nature of the text, the author combines redaction criticism with comparative observations, cross-cultural studies in rituals, and inner-biblical exegesis. His analysis focuses on the sources used by the authors of Leviticus and the way in which they are re-interpreted in what is primarily a literary composition; on the book s relationship to the so-called 'priestly' literature in the Pentateuch; and, finally, on the place of Leviticus in the composition of the Torah as a whole. In particular, it is argued that Leviticus 1-16 (except for chapter 10) was initially composed as the conclusion to the priestly narrative in Genesis and Exodus. It reinterprets earlier ritual texts serving as check-lists for priests, transforming them into a revelation made to Moses on Mt Sinai for the whole community and thereby achieving the sacerdotal ideal of Israel as the 'priestly nation' of the world. Thus, reinterpretation of earlier sources in Lev 1-16 goes hand in hand with a redefinition of the community's identity that betrays the specific concerns of the priestly scribes in Jerusalem under Persian rule, probably during the reign of Darius I. The introduction of Lev 17-26 (27), for its part, betrays an entirely distinct historical and literary context. Through the systematic reception of Deuteronomy on one hand and the 'Book of the Covenant' (Ex 21-23) on the other, an attempt is made to close the revelation on Mt Sinai with a legislation that bridges the gap between P and other biblical codes at the time of the Torah's composition."
Scholar Israel Knohl offers a new perspective on the history and theology of the Priestly source of the Pentateuch. Knohl claims that groups associated with the Priestly Torah appear ensconced within the Temple, operating within a "Sanctuary of Silence", in contrast to the later Holiness School, which reached a loftier conception of God and a broader purview of faith, holiness, and practice.
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The first five books of the Hebrew Bible contain a significant number of texts describing ritual practices. Yet it is often unclear how these sources would have been understood or used by ancient audiences in the actual performance of cult. This volume explores the processes of ritual textualization (the creation of a written version of a ritual) in ancient Israel by probing the main conceptual and methodological issues that inform the study of this topic in the Pentateuch. This systematic and comparative study of text and ritual in the first five books of the Hebrew Bible maps the main areas of consensus and disagreement among scholars engaged in articulating new models for understanding the relationship between text and ritual and explores the importance of comparative evidence for the study of pentateuchal rituals. Topics include ritual textualization in ancient Anatolia, Egypt, Greece, and Mesopotamia; the importance of archaeology and materiality for the study of text and ritual in ancient Israel; the relationship between ritual textualization and standardization in the Pentateuch; the reception of pentateuchal ritual texts in Second Temple writings and rabbinic literature; and the relationship between text and ritual in the Dead Sea Scrolls. In addition to the editors, the contributors to this volume include Dorothea Erbele-Küster, Daniel K. Falk, Yitzhaq Feder, Christian Frevel, William K. Gilders, Dominique Jaillard, Giuseppina Lenzo, Lionel Marti, Patrick Michel, Rüdiger Schmitt, Jeremy D. Smoak, and James W. Watts.
This groundbreaking volume of the Five Books of Moses shows and explains how the source texts were compiled: “A fundamental resource” (Peter Machinist, Harvard University). For centuries, biblical scholars have worked on discovering how the Bible came to be. The consensus among a broad range of experts is known as The Documentary Hypothesis: the idea that ancient writers produced documents of poetry, prose, and law over many centuries, which editors then used as sources to fashion the books of the Bible that people have read for the last two thousand years. In The Bible with Sources Revealed, eminent scholar Richard Elliott Friedman offers a new, visual presentation of the Five Books of Moses—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—unlocking the complex and fascinating tapestry of their origins. Different colors and type styles allow readers to easily identify each of the distinct sources, showcasing Friedman's highly acclaimed and dynamic translation. This unique Bible provides a new means to explore the riches of scripture by: •Making it possible to read the source texts individually, to see their artistry, their views of God, Israel, and humankind, and their connection to their moment in history •Presenting the largest collection of evidence ever assembled for establishing and explaining the Documentary Hypothesis •Showing visually how the Bible was formed out of these sources •Helping readers appreciate that the Bible is a rich, complex, beautiful work as a result of the extraordinary way in which it was created.
For many years, the historical-critical quest for a reconstruction of the origin(s) and development of the Pentateuch or Hexateuch has been dominated by the documentary hypothesis, the heuristic power of which has produced a consensus so strong that an interpreter who did not operate within its framework was hardly regarded as a scholar. However, the relentless march of research on this topic has continued to yield new and refined analyses, data, methodological tools, and criticism. In this spirit, the contributions to this volume investigate new ideas about the composition of the Pentateuch arising from careful analysis of the biblical text against its ancient Near Eastern background. Covering a wide spectrum of topics and diverging perspectives, the chapters in this book are grouped into two parts. The first is primarily concerned with the history of scholarship and alternative approaches to the development of the Pentateuch. The second focuses on the exegesis of particular texts relevant to the composition of the Torah. The aim of the project is to foster investigation and collegial dialogue in a spirit of humility and frankness, without imposing uniformity. In addition to the editors, the contributors include Tiago Arrais, Richard E. Averbeck, John S. Bergsma, Joshua A. Berman, Daniel I. Block, Richard Davidson, Roy E. Gane, Duane A. Garrett, Richard S. Hess, Benjamin Kilchör, Michael LeFebvre, Jiří Moskala, and Christian Vogel.
Jeffrey Stackert explores literary correspondences among the pentateuchal legal corpora and especially the relationships between similar laws in Deuteronomy and the Holiness Legislation (Lev 17-26, the so-called "Holiness Code," as well as significant parts of the Priestly source elsewhere in the Pentateuch). Resemblances between these law collections range from broad structure to fine detail and include treatments of similar legal topics, correlations with regard to sequence of laws, and precise grammatical and lexical correspondences. Yet the nature and basis of these resemblances persist as debated points among biblical scholars. Through an analysis of the pentateuchal laws on asylum, seventh-year release, manumission, and tithes, the author argues that the Holiness Legislation depends upon both the Covenant Collection and Deuteronomy. He also elucidates the compositional logic of the Holiness legislators, showing that these authors do not simply replicate pre-existing legal content. Rather, they employ a method of literary revision in which they reconceptualize source material according to their own ideological biases. In the end, the Holiness Legislation proves to be a "super law" that collects and distills the Priestly and non-Priestly laws that precede it. By accommodating, reformulating, and incorporating various viewpoints from these sources, the Holiness authors create a work that is intended to supersede them all.
Applying criteria for the identification of biblical Hebrew poetry, Jason M. H. Gaines distinguishes a nearly complete poetic Priestly stratum in the Pentateuch (“Poetic P”), coherent in literary, narrative, and ideological terms, from a later prose redaction (“Prosaic P”), which is fragmentary, supplemental, and distinct in thematic and theological concern. Gaines describes the whole of the “Poetic P” source and offers a Hebrew reconstruction of the document. This dramatically innovative understanding of the history of the Priestly composition opens up new vistas in the study of the Pentateuch.
New directions and fresh insight for scholars and students The single greatest catalyst and contributor to our developing understanding of priestly literature has been Jacob Milgrom (1923-2010), whose seminal articles, provocative hypotheses, and comprehensively probing books vastly expanded and significantly altered scholarship regarding priestly and related literature. Nineteen articles build on Milgrom's work and look to future directions of research. Essays cover a range of topics including the interpretation, composition and literary structure of priestly and holiness texts as well as their relationships to deuteronomic and extra-biblical texts. The book includes a bibliography of Milgrom's work published between 1994 and 2014. Features: Comparisons with Mesopotamian Hittite texts Essays from a diverse group of scholars representing a variety of backgrounds, perspectives, and methodologies Charts and tables illustrate complex relationships and structures
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