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EXPERT SYSTEMS, KNOWLEDGE ENGINEERING FOR HUMAN REPLICATION. An expert system is a computer program that attempts to replicate the expertise and decision-making abilities of a human expert. Expert systems are the most widely developed area of artificial intelligence, with a variety of applications ranging from medical diagnosis through to financial decision-making and geological prospecting. They often use a heuristic or self-learning approach to the solution of a problem, in which feedback of the results of a particular course of action influences subsequent decisions. Expert systems usually have two principal parts: a knowledge base (a special database, which contains facts and other information representing the rules and experience of an expert practitioner in a particular field); and an inference engine, which interprets the knowledge base in relation to the particular problem being presented.
The application of technology and its integrations includes the scientific knowledge to the practical aims of human life or to the change and manipulation of the human environment. Circa 3000 years BC many new technologies were developed; irrigation systems, road networks and wheeled vehicles, a pictographic form of writing and new building techniques. The new ideas and techniques engendered official persecution, but by the mid-17th century the tide of opinion had changed. By the late 17th century, technology essentially meant engineering. During the 19th century science began to create new technologies. This continued into the 20th century with the introduction of computing, Internet, Artificial Intelligence and other services made possible only because of further advances in science. In recent years Western aid has sought to develop appropriate technologies, using local materials and techniques, in partnership with the indigenous peoples.
International law, sometimes called the law of nations, has evolved over the last 400 years. The three major sources of international law according to Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice are: international conventions or treaties; international customs; and the general principles of law as recognized by civilized nations. The Permanent Court of Arbitration was established by the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907, and the Permanent Court of International Justice was set up in 1921 and succeeded in 1946 by the International Court of Justice. Since World War II international organizations such as the UN and its related bodies have contributed to the expansion and increased scope of international law to include political and strategic affairs, economic, social, communications, and environmental matters. By the 1990s international law had shown its durability and flexibility by expanding to cover new areas of world relations, and its efficacy through the machinery of the UN.
An instinct is the mechanism by which animals and humans can perform complex behaviour patterns without learning or conscious effort. Instinctive behaviours are inherited and have evolved to be adaptive, fitting the organism to its particular role. Instinct is of particular importance in animal behaviours such as courtship, mating, and other reproductive activities. More general behaviours such as feeding and defence may have an instinctive base. Many birds, some grasshoppers, frogs, and a number of other animals have song or call patterns that attract mates and are based upon instinct. Instinctive behaviours often require a stimulus or releaser to initiate them. The herring-gull chick pecks the red spot on the adult's bill, releasing its instinctive feeding behaviour. A releaser will operate only if conditions, both internal and external to the organism, are suitable.
From the mid-16th century to the beginning first quarter of the 21st century, economic thought can be split into five main historical schools: mercantilism; the economics of the French physiocrats; classical economics; Keynesianism; and monetarism. The schools do not necessarily encompass the views of all economists. The mercantilists, between the mid-16th and mid-18th centuries, argued that the wealth of nations depended on their balance of trade. Proponents of the theory were concerned to maximize the amount of precious metals in the country. Protectionism was encouraged. Economic forecasting and growth are variables, either macro-economic (for country/ies) or micro-economic (for product/market), which deals with the increase in the productive capacity of an economy.
The 436 pages of six books (integrated into one tome) include Information Technology, Management, Artificial Intelligence, Internet, Expert Systems, Systems Analysis, Computing, Risk Management, and Change Management. In writing this volume, the author took into consideration the advance of today's information technology and computing in general, the principles of work and leisure alike, factory and business operations, networking, defence, medicine, education and the domestic environment. Also, the social concerns that computers and their systems influence our attitudes to privacy, and employment. Although the world of computing became smaller with new ultra-small computing systems, equipped with wireless networking systems worldwide, the reader can appreciate that the construction of such systems is as complex as a house built in a swamp. It does, therefore, require careful planning and design. Just as a house must have an architect's plan, so does a system.
The simplistic explanation of psychotherapy is that it deals with the treatment of disorders of emotion or personality by psychological methods. Formerly, this was the treatment of disease by psychic or hypnotic influence. As the profession of psychotherapy is now established, the treatment of emotional or behavioural problems by psychological means, often in one-to-one interviews or small groups, is now the accepted norm. The amount of branches in the fields of psychotherapies, psychology and counselling, medical and psychiatric treatments; the schools of ideas are innumerable. In certain cases the encouragement to develop their talents, follow academic studies, and show them the way of professional portability and continuous self-development will improve their chances for suitable careers. Any of these may be the suitable treatment of uncertainty, anxiety, panic attacks and a few other psychological and medical complaints.
Philosophy and Politics have many different areas, classified according to the subject-matter of the problems being addressed. Thus, this volume includes eight books on: Epistemology, British Philosophers (Hobbes, Locke, Hume, Burke, Bentham, and Mill), about Machiavelli, Hegel, Rousseau, Marxism, Plato, and Aristotle. This tome of the eight books attempts to describe the use of reason and argument in the search for truth and the nature of reality, especially of the causes and nature of things and of the principles governing existence, perception, human behaviour, political systems, and the material universe. The contents of this title explain the philosophical activities, directed at understanding and clarifying the concepts, methods, and doctrines of other disciplines, or at reasoning itself and the concepts, methods, and doctrines of such general notions as truth, possibility, knowledge (epistemology), necessity, existence (ontology and metaphysics), and proof.
Management is the science used for the application of quantitative techniques to business decision-making. Business Management covers the whole range of decision-making by management, for example, information technology, operations research, production management, marketing, personnel management, and cost accounting. Management methods operate by forming a quantitative representation of a business problem that is by putting a numerical value on the factors involved. This modelling process enables the major elements of the decision to be identified and considered in relation to the whole problem. Alternative solutions can be put forward, evaluated and an optimum solution found. There is always a need to balance the quantitative approach with behavioural considerations, keeping in mind that business decisions involve people. Whilst experience can be used to suggest how people might react in the future, conditions change and consequently people's future reactions are not always predictable.