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As a result of recent advances in photovoltaics technology, renewable energy generated by the sun has become a viable alternative to traditional sources of energy. Photovoltaic modules composed of thin film solar cell devices offer several advantages over standard wafer based silicon modules, including high throughput automated production and reduced materials usage and cost. Spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) is an important measurement tool capable of aiding high throughput manufacturing processes for thin films. SE is a non-destructive measurement technique well suited to measure and track parameters critical to photovoltaic device performance such as layer thicknesses, as well as optical and electrical properties of the layer components. This dissertation seeks to extend the application of SE via an expanded-beam method to large area photovoltaic modules while retaining the high measurement speeds of single spot measurements with collimated beams. The transition of ellipsometers as laboratory instruments to ones suitable for high throughput manufacturing lines poses unique challenges. The construction of a rotating compensator ellipsometer suitable for industrial applications is addressed with an emphasis on measurement speed. Schemes are evaluated to correct SE data for the inherent misalignments present in large area measurements of full-scale panels. In particular, consideration is given to the problems of oscillations due to compensator misalignment, effects of glass stress and overlap of reflected beams in through-the-glass measurements, and off-plane corrections due to large area substrate curvature. Expanded-beam SE was developed and applied for in situ, high-speed imaging/mapping analysis of spatial uniformity over large area multilayer coated substrates used in roll-to-roll thin film photovoltaics (PV). Slower speed instrumentation available for such analysis applies a 1D detector array for spectroscopic mapping and involves width-wise translation of SE optics over a conveyed substrate surface, measuring point-by-point in a time-consuming process. The expanded-beam instrument instead employs a 2D detector array with no moving optics, exploiting one array index for spectroscopy and the second array index for imaging across a line on a large area sample. Thus, the instrument enables imaging width-wise and mapping length-wise for evaluation of uniformity at the high linear substrate speeds required for real-time, in-situ, and inline analysis for roll-to-roll thin film PV. In this dissertation, the expanded beam technique is employed to study the components of a hydrogenated amorphous silicon (aSi:H) thin film photovoltaic device structure in the Ag/ZnO/n-i-p substrate configuration. The layers were deposited on a flexible substrate mounted on a roll-to-roll cassette. Ellipsometric measurements were performed using an expanded beam spectroscopic ellipsometer capable of simultaneously measuring 41 locations across the width of the substrate to form a line image. Layer thicknesses and optical property maps were constructed from sets of line images generated using ellipsometric analysis techniques. These techniques apply a best fit structural model for the film stack and pertinent optical models for the constituent layers of the device structure.
Spectroscopic ellipsometry has been applied to a wide variety of material and device characterizations in solar cell research fields. In particular, device performance analyses using exact optical constants of component layers and direct analyses of complex solar cell structures are unique features of advanced ellipsometry methods. This second volume of Spectroscopic Ellipsometry for Photovoltaics presents various applications of the ellipsometry technique for device analyses, including optical/recombination loss analyses, real-time control and on-line monitoring of solar cell structures, and large-area structural mapping. Furthermore, this book describes the optical constants of 148 solar cell component layers, covering a broad range of materials from semiconductor light absorbers (inorganic, organic and hybrid perovskite semiconductors) to transparent conductive oxides and metals. The tabulated and completely parameterized optical constants described in this book are the most current resource that is vital for device simulations and solar cell structural analyses.
This book concisely illustrates the techniques of major surface analysis and their applications to a few key examples. Surfaces play crucial roles in various interfacial processes, and their electronic/geometric structures rule the physical/chemical properties. In the last several decades, various techniques for surface analysis have been developed in conjunction with advances in optics, electronics, and quantum beams. This book provides a useful resource for a wide range of scientists and engineers from students to professionals in understanding the main points of each technique, such as principles, capabilities and requirements, at a glance. It is a contemporary encyclopedia for selecting the appropriate method depending on the reader's purpose.
Ellipsometry is a powerful tool used for the characterization of thin films and multi-layer semiconductor structures. This book deals with fundamental principles and applications of spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE). Beginning with an overview of SE technologies the text moves on to focus on the data analysis of results obtained from SE, Fundamental data analyses, principles and physical backgrounds and the various materials used in different fields from LSI industry to biotechnology are described. The final chapter describes the latest developments of real-time monitoring and process control which have attracted significant attention in various scientific and industrial fields.
Ellipsometry is an experimental technique for determining the thickness and optical properties of thin films. It is ideally suited for films ranging in thickness from sub-nanometer to several microns. Spectroscopic measurements have greatly expanded the capabilities of this technique and introduced its use into all areas where thin films are found: semiconductor devices, flat panel and mobile displays, optical coating stacks, biological and medical coatings, protective layers, and more. While several scholarly books exist on the topic, this book provides a good introduction to the basic theory of the technique and its common applications. The target audience is not the ellipsometry scholar, but process engineers and students of materials science who are experts in their own fields and wish to use ellipsometry to measure thin film properties without becoming an expert in ellipsometry itself.
This book provides a basic understanding of spectroscopic ellipsometry, with a focus on characterization methods of a broad range of solar cell materials/devices, from traditional solar cell materials (Si, CuInGaSe2, and CdTe) to more advanced emerging materials (Cu2ZnSnSe4, organics, and hybrid perovskites), fulfilling a critical need in the photovoltaic community. The book describes optical constants of a variety of semiconductor light absorbers, transparent conductive oxides and metals that are vital for the interpretation of solar cell characteristics and device simulations. It is divided into four parts: fundamental principles of ellipsometry; characterization of solar cell materials/structures; ellipsometry applications including optical simulations of solar cell devices and online monitoring of film processing; and the optical constants of solar cell component layers.
This brief introductory chapter provides a broad overview of materials, biomaterials and the need to understand different techniques to characterize biomaterials. From this chapter, the reader can gain a perspective on how the rest of the topics in different chapters are divided to fully comprehend this inherently multidisciplinary field. Application of appropriate characterization tools can not only save time to fully evaluate different biomaterials, it can also make commercial biomedical devices safer. In the long run, safer biomedical devices can only reduce the pain and suffering of mankind, a dream that resonates with every biomedical researcher.
Hyperbolic metamaterials were originally introduced to overcome the diffraction limit of optical imaging. Soon thereafter it was realized that hyperbolic metamaterials demonstrate a number of novel phenomena resulting from the broadband singular behavior of their density of photonic states. These novel phenomena and applications include super resolution imaging, new stealth technologies, enhanced quantum-electrodynamic effects, thermal hyperconductivity, superconductivity, and interesting gravitation theory analogs. Here I review typical material systems, which exhibit hyperbolic behavior and outline important new applications of hyperbolic metamaterials, such as imaging experiments with plasmonic hyperbolic metamaterials and novel VCSEL geometries, in which the Bragg mirrors may be engineered in such a way that they exhibit hyperbolic properties in the long wavelength infrared range, so that they may be used to efficiently remove excess heat from the laser cavity. I will also discuss potential applications of self-assembled photonic hypercrystals. This system bypasses 3D nanofabrication issues, which typically limit hyperbolic metamaterial applications. Photonic hypercrystals combine the most interesting features of hyperbolic metamaterials and photonic crystals.