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Algal biofuels have gained increased attention over the past decade due to its potential for substituting fossil fuels and sequestering carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. One of the major obstacles for producing biofuels from microalgae is extracting intracellular lipids, which requires penetration of solvents into the cell wall and membrane. Lipid extraction and the algae concentration processes combined account for the majority of the energy input required to make algal biofuels. Improvements in both of these steps are necessary for making algal biofuels production a net-positive energy process. The goal of this study was to improve the energy efficiency of lipid extraction from microalgae by either decreasing the amount of drying necessary for lipid extraction, or increasing the amount of lipids extracted via pretreatment methods. To achieve the goal, the following objectives were completed: (1) the effects of biomass concentration on solvent extraction yields with chloroform and n-hexane was investigated, (2) the efficiencies of chloroform and n-hexane as an extracting solvent were examined, and (3) the impact of pretreatment of microalgae with ultrasonication, microwaves, and electroporation on extraction yields was investigated. The microalgae Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) was grown in the laboratory in batch bioreactors. The microalgae was concentrated to different biomass concentrations and the lipids were extracted using two solvent systems: chloroform/methanol/water and n-hexane/ methanol/water. For the chloroform/methanol/water solvent system, the highest total lipid yield of 0.248 g per g of dry C. vulgaris was achieved at algal biomass concentration of about 15% on weight basis. On the other hand, the total lipid yield of 0.139 g per g of dry C. vulgaris was obtained at about 24% algal biomass concentration for the n-hexane/ methanol/water solvent system. Extraction of lipids with n-hexane was 76% of the yield of the extraction with chloroform. Electroporation, ultrasonication, and microwaves were studied for their potential pretreatment methods to increase lipid extraction from C. vulgaris. The yield for lipid extraction increased from 0.246 to 0.311 g per dry g of C. vulgaris when the cells were pretreated with ultrasonication, which is equivalent to a 26.4% increase. Pretreatment with microwaves resulted in a lipid yield of 0.317 g per dry g of C. vulgaris, which is a 28.9% increase. Electroporation resulted in a lipid yield of 0.259 g per dry g of C. vulgaris, which is a low increase of 5.3%, but electroporation was the most efficient in terms of energy requirements. It was also found that pretreatment of the algae does have the potential to replace polar solvents in lipid extraction for cell disruption, however improvements need to be made in the process in order to gain the same yield as a combined chloroform/methanol extraction.
Microalgae Cultivation for Biofuels Production explores the technological opportunities and challenges involved in producing economically competitive algal-derived biofuel. The book discusses efficient methods for cultivation, improvement of harvesting and lipid extraction techniques, optimization of conversion/production processes of fuels and co-products, the integration of microalgae biorefineries to several industries, environmental resilience by microalgae, and a techno-economic and lifecycle analysis of the production chain to gain maximum benefits from microalgae biorefineries. Provides an overview of the whole production chain of microalgal biofuels and other bioproducts Presents an analysis of the economic and sustainability aspects of the production chain Examines the integration of microalgae biorefineries into several industries
Downstream bioprocesses have a significant role to play in the creation of a sustainable bio-based economy, enabling the creation of new products and systems from the more sustainable bioprocessing of natural products. Liquid Biphasic System: Fundamentals, Methods, and Applications in Bioseparation Technology explores in detail the fundamental processes and applications of this new separation system, aiding understanding of the basic principles of the technique and offering constructive criticisms on the latest findings. Including coverage of the background, principles, mechanisms, and applications, Liquid Biphasic System addresses how to adapt the technology for the purification of useful compounds with greater cost efficiency and greener processing. It is essential reading for bioprocess engineers, biochemical engineers, biosystem engineers, chemists and microbiologists working in the fields of bioprocessing. Researchers, scientists, and engineers concerned with the selection and evaluation of alternative bioseparation processes will find the book particularly useful. Provides information and examples of advanced separations in a single source Includes detailed descriptions of novel bioseparation systems Covers the latest technologies related to advanced liquid–liquid separation and their applications in various industries
A multidisciplinary overview of bio-derived solvent applications, life cycle analysis, and strategies required for industrial commercialization This book provides the first and only comprehensive review of the state-of-the-science in bio-derived solvents. Drawing on their own pioneering work in the field, as well as an exhaustive survey of the world literature on the subject, the authors cover all the bases—from bio-derived solvent applications to life cycle analysis to strategies for industrial commercialization—for researchers and professional chemists working across a range of industries. In the increasingly critical area of sustainable chemistry, the search for new and better green solvents has become a top priority. Thanks to their renewability, biodegradability and low toxicity, as well as their potential to promote advantageous organic reactions, green solvents offer the promise of significantly reducing the pernicious effects of chemical processes on human health and the environment. Following an overview of the current solvents markets and the challenges and opportunities presented by bio-derived solvents, a series of dedicated chapters cover all significant classes of solvent arranged by origin and/or chemical structure. Throughout, real-world examples are used to help demonstrate the various advantages, drawbacks, and limitations of each class of solvent. Topics covered include: The commercial potential of various renewably sourced solvents, such as glycerol The various advantages and disadvantages of bio-derived versus petroleum-based solvents Renewably-sourced and waste-derived solvents in the design of eco-efficient processes Life cycle assessment and predictive methods for bio-based solvents Industrial and commercial viability of bio-based solvents now and in the years ahead Potential and limitations of methodologies involving bio-derived solvents New developments and emerging trends in the field and the shape of things to come Considering the vast potential for new and better products suggested by recent developments in this exciting field, Bio-Based Solvents will be a welcome resource among students and researchers in catalysis, organic synthesis, electrochemistry, and pharmaceuticals, as well as industrial chemists involved in manufacturing processes and formulation, and policy makers.
This edited volume focuses on comprehensive state-of-the-art information about the practical aspects of cultivation, harvesting, biomass processing and biofuel production from algae. Chapters cover topics such as synthetic ecological engineering approaches towards sustainable production of biofuel feedstock, and algal biofuel production processes using wastewater. Readers will also discover more about the role of biotechnological engineering in improving ecophysiology, biomass and lipid yields. Particular attention is given to opportunities of commercialization of algal biofuels that provides a realistic assessment of various techno-economical aspects of pilot scale algal biofuel production. The authors also explore the pre-treatment of biomass, catalytic conversion of algal lipids and hydrothermal liquefaction with the biorefinery approach in detail. In a nut shell, this volume will provide a wealth of information based on a realistic evaluation of contemporary developments in algal biofuel research with an emphasis on pilot scale studies. Researchers studying and working in the areas of environmental science, biotechnology, genetic engineering and biochemistry will find this work instructive and informative.
Cells can be funny. Try to grow them with a slightly wrong recipe, and they turn over and die. But hit them with an electric field strong enough to knock over a horse, and they do enough things to justify international meetings, to fill a sizable book, and to lead one to speak of an entirely new technology for cell manipulation. The very improbability of these events not only raises questions about why things happen but also leads to a long list of practical systems in which the application of strong electric fields might enable the merger of cell contents or the introduction of alien but vital material. Inevitably, the basic questions and the practical applications will not keep in step. The questions are intrinsically tough. It is hard enough to analyze the action of the relatively weak fields that rotate or align cells, but it is nearly impossible to predict responses to the cell-shredding bursts of electricity that cause them to fuse or to open up to very large molecular assemblies. Even so, theoretical studies and systematic examination of model systems have produced some creditable results, ideas which should ultimately provide hints of what to try next.
This book addresses microalgae, which represent a very promising biomass resource for wastewater treatment and producing biofuels. Accordingly, microalgae are also an expanding sector in biofuels and wastewater treatment, as can be seen in several high-profile start-ups from around the globe, including Solix Biofuels, Craig Venter’s Synthetic Genomics, PetroSun, Chevron Corporation, ENN Group etc. In addition, a number of recent studies and patent applications have confirmed the value of modern microalgae for biofuels production and wastewater treatment systems. However, substantial inconsistencies have been observed in terms of system boundaries, scope, the cultivation of microalgae and oil extraction systems, production costs and economic viability, cost-lowering components, etc. Moreover, the downstream technologies and core principles involved in liquid fuel extraction from microalgae cells are still in their early stages, and not always adequate for industrial production. Accordingly, multilateral co-operation between universities, research institutes, governments, stakeholders and researchers is called for in order to make microalgae biofuels economical. Responding to this challenge, the book begins with a general introduction to microalgae and the algae industry, and subsequently discusses all major aspects of microalgal biotechnology, from strain isolation and robust strain development, to biofuel development, refinement and wastewater treatment.
Microalgae has been used in research for biodiesel production for many years. The reason for choosing microalgae rather than other lipid containing sources is because algae takes up carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas and can be cultivated in any harsh condition. In addition to being used as a possible biofuel source, algae is also being used as a potential food source for humans and animals, and a major ingredient in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. Currently another issue that the world faces is disposing of dairy and agricultural wastewater. This research is based on cultivating Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) in untreated dairy wastewater. This wastewater comes from a local dairy near the university and it contains nutrients which facilitate the growth of C. vulgaris. Using indoor cultivation in a photobioreactor, under artificial light conditions, the growth of C. vulgaris in wastewater was monitored to maximize biomass productivity. The growth rate and biomass concentration were obtained from UV-Vis spectroscopy by determining the optical density values at a specific wavelength. The dairy wastewater was not directly applied for the growth, but a standard medium was used to dilute it to a usable range. Procedures were followed to make the wastewater suitable for the cultivation of C. vulgaris. The wastewater before and after cultivation was examined to obtain the nutrient uptake rate of C. vulgaris for nitrogen. Two methods for lipid extraction were compared in order to find an efficient method. Extracted lipid content was compared with that from an outdoor cultivation and the lipids were characterized using GC-MS technique.
The Application of Green Solvents in Separation Processes features a logical progression of a wide range of topics and methods, beginning with an overview of green solvents, covering everything from water and organic solvents, to ionic liquids, switchable solvents, eutectic mixtures, supercritical fluids, gas-expanded solvents, and more. In addition, the book outlines green extraction techniques, such as green membrane extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and surfactant-mediated extraction techniques. Green sampling and sample preparation techniques are then explored, followed by green analytical separations, including green gas and liquid capillary chromatography, counter current chromatography, supercritical fluid chromatography, capillary electrophoresis, and other electrical separations. Applications of green chemistry techniques that are relevant for a broad range of scientific and technological areas are covered, including the benefits and challenges associated with their application. Provides insights into recent advances in greener extraction and separation processes Gives an understanding of alternatives to harmful solvents commonly used in extraction and separation processes, as well as advanced techniques for such processes Written by a multidisciplinary group of internationally recognized scientists
The petroleum age began about 150 years ago. Easily available energy has s- ported major advances in agriculture, industry, transportation, and indeed many diverse activities valued by humans. Now world petroleum and natural gas s- plies have peaked and their supplies will slowly decline over the next 40–50 years until depleted. Although small amounts of petroleum and natural gas will remain underground, it will be energetically and economically impossible to extract. In the United States, coal supplies could be available for as long as 40–50 years, depending on how rapidly coal is utilized as a replacement for petroleum and natural gas. Having been comfortable with the security provided by fossil energy, especially petroleum and natural gas, we appear to be slow to recognize the energy crisis in the U. S. and world. Serious energy conservation and research on viable renewable - ergy technologies are needed. Several renewable energy technologies already exist, but sound research is needed to improve their effectiveness and economics. Most of the renewable energy technologies are in uenced by geographic location and face problems of intermittent energy supply and storage. Most renewable technologies require extensive land; a few researchers have even suggested that one-half of all land biomass could be harvested in order to supply the U. S. with 30% of its liquid fuel! Some optimistic investigations of renewable energy have failed to recognize that only 0. 1% of the solar energy is captured annually in the U. S.