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West Nile virus (WNV) is a zoonotic, mosquito-borne pathogen that causes human disease when virus transmission spills over from natural mosquito-bird transmission cycles. Vaccines and antiviral therapies are not available for human use, so mosquito control is the primary means for reducing transmission risk to the human population. Surveillance of mosquitoes and birds aims to provide early warning of times and places of increased epizootic transmission, while passive surveillance of the human population aims to detect cases of disease as soon as possible after their onset. In order to maximize the value of surveillance information, the system must be timely, sensitive, and efficient. In Chapter 1, a comparison of three common enzootic surveillance methods was conducted after standardization of spatio-temporal sampling frequency and costs. Testing of publicly-reported dead birds provided timely and cost-effective detection of WNV where susceptible bird species were found, and collection and testing of mosquitoes provided early and sensitive detection of virus activity. Serological information from sentinel chickens typically lagged detection of WNV by other methods, and random subsetting of existing flocks suggested that flock sizes could be reduced to 6-7 chickens without substantial losses in sensitivity or delays in detection. In Chapter 2, the association between enzootic surveillance methods and the occurrence of West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND) cases in humans. Mixed-effects Poisson regression validated by multiple measures of agreement was used to quantify differences in predictive performance of the surveillance methods alone or in combination. Predictions of WNND occurrence was most reliable for mosquito-based surveillance at a relatively coarse sub-county scale, and higher estimated abundance of infected mosquitoes was associated with higher numbers of disease cases. Comparisons of predictive performance across study areas suggested that caution is warranted when generalizing surveillance guidelines across diverse ecological regions. In Chapter 3, hierarchical Bayesian modeling was used to identify possible causes of variation in the sensitivity of the passive surveillance system for human disease. Febrile disease attributed to WNV is widely underreported, and estimating the causes of variation in the probability of detecting such cases was of primary interest. Sensitivity varied over space and time as a function of incidence anomalies and internet search indices, which were used as proxies for media attention and public awareness. Sensitivity estimates were highest during spring and early summer and varied among years. An estimated 1% of all West Nile fever cases and 66% of WNND cases were detected in the study time period. The results of this dissertation research can guide vector control agencies in the optimization of surveillance resources for efficient and early WNV detection, and can inform public health agencies about the factors that affect disease detection. This research has provided evidence of the comparative value of each of the surveillance methods, the predictive capabilities of the information gained from these methods, and suggested levels of sampling effort to extend existing surveillance resources. In addition this research has identified several influential factors on case detection which can be used by public health agencies to guide outreach campaigns to improve sensitivity of the passive surveillance system in places and times where it is lacking.
The overarching goal of the work described herein is aimed at increasing the translation and application of geospatial research to improve real-world West Nile virus surveillance and mitigation activities. We first conducted a case study in Los Angeles County to demonstrate how geospatial methods can be used to identify factors supporting WNV hotspots. Through our analysis, we determined that catch basins provide a link between drought conditions and increased WNV prevalence of vectors and humans in the county. We then focused on public health and vector control agencies involved in WNV control and investigated the barriers and challenges in implementing geospatial modeling for use in WNV surveillance and mitigation. Barriers were largely dependent upon what stage agencies had implemented geospatial modeling. Additionally, stand-alone vector control and public health agencies faced a greater number of barriers compared to combined agencies. Following our analysis of identifying barriers to implementation, we sought to identify best practices in geospatial modeling for use in WNV control. We examined how four vector control and public health agencies have used geospatial modeling to: (1) elucidate the vector ecology of mosquito species; (2) bolster mosquito source reduction efforts; (3) develop predictive risk assessment models; and (4) increase vector control agency worker utilization. Taken together, these studies provide important insights into how geospatial modeling can be used to applied and implemented in practice to improve the surveillance and control of WNV throughout the United States, and identifies how these practices can be applied to address threats by newly emerging and re-emerging vector-borne diseases.
As global climate change proliferates, so too do the health risks associated with the changing world around us. Called for in the President’s Climate Action Plan and put together by experts from eight different Federal agencies, The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health: A Scientific Assessment is a comprehensive report on these evolving health risks, including: Temperature-related death and illness Air quality deterioration Impacts of extreme events on human health Vector-borne diseases Climate impacts on water-related Illness Food safety, nutrition, and distribution Mental health and well-being This report summarizes scientific data in a concise and accessible fashion for the general public, providing executive summaries, key takeaways, and full-color diagrams and charts. Learn what health risks face you and your family as a result of global climate change and start preparing now with The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health.
Early detection is essential to the control of emerging, reemerging, and novel infectious diseases, whether naturally occurring or intentionally introduced. Containing the spread of such diseases in a profoundly interconnected world requires active vigilance for signs of an outbreak, rapid recognition of its presence, and diagnosis of its microbial cause, in addition to strategies and resources for an appropriate and efficient response. Although these actions are often viewed in terms of human public health, they also challenge the plant and animal health communities. Surveillance, defined as "the continual scrutiny of all aspects of occurrence and spread of a disease that are pertinent to effective control", involves the "systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of health data." Disease detection and diagnosis is the act of discovering a novel, emerging, or reemerging disease or disease event and identifying its cause. Diagnosis is "the cornerstone of effective disease control and prevention efforts, including surveillance." Disease surveillance and detection relies heavily on the astute individual: the clinician, veterinarian, plant pathologist, farmer, livestock manager, or agricultural extension agent who notices something unusual, atypical, or suspicious and brings this discovery in a timely way to the attention of an appropriate representative of human public health, veterinary medicine, or agriculture. Most developed countries have the ability to detect and diagnose human, animal, and plant diseases. Global Infectious Disease Surveillance and Detection: Assessing the Challenges-Finding Solutions, Workshop Summary is part of a 10 book series and summarizes the recommendations and presentations of the workshop.
Since the dawn of medical science, people have recognized connections between a change in the weather and the appearance of epidemic disease. With today's technology, some hope that it will be possible to build models for predicting the emergence and spread of many infectious diseases based on climate and weather forecasts. However, separating the effects of climate from other effects presents a tremendous scientific challenge. Can we use climate and weather forecasts to predict infectious disease outbreaks? Can the field of public health advance from "surveillance and response" to "prediction and prevention?" And perhaps the most important question of all: Can we predict how global warming will affect the emergence and transmission of infectious disease agents around the world? Under the Weather evaluates our current understanding of the linkages among climate, ecosystems, and infectious disease; it then goes a step further and outlines the research needed to improve our understanding of these linkages. The book also examines the potential for using climate forecasts and ecological observations to help predict infectious disease outbreaks, identifies the necessary components for an epidemic early warning system, and reviews lessons learned from the use of climate forecasts in other realms of human activity.
The twenty-seven contributions authored by leaders in the fields of avian and urban ecology present a unique summary of current research on birds in settled environments ranging from wildlands to exurban, rural to urban.
"This is the identification manual for North American mosquitoes."--Choice "The essential resource for anyone concerned with mosquito control or biology."--American Reference Books Annual "A valuable resource. . . . This book is the collective product of two very competent scientists."--Journal of Medical Entomology "For the dedicated mosquito worshipper! This book is undoubtedly a must and with its beautifully illustrated keys sets a high standard to follow."--Parasitology Because of the occurrence of mosquito-borne diseases and the widespread distribution of mosquitoes as pests to humans, professionals must know how to identify them. With its wealth of information, this book is the only one of its kind available for specialists working on mosquito-borne diseases and in mosquito control units, and for introductory and advanced students who study entomology. This book updates the successful guide to North American mosquitoes published by the American Mosquito Control Association in 1981. It includes 12 new species that have since been added to the North American mosquito fauna, revised distribution maps of all species, and revised and completely illustrated identification keys for the adult females and fourth instar larvae of all 174 species and subspecies known to occur in North America, north of Mexico. Including 9 exotic species that have been introduced and today successfully thrive in North America, this book's usefulness to mosquito control programs cannot be overestimated.
Vector-borne infectious diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, and plague, cause a significant fraction of the global infectious disease burden; indeed, nearly half of the world's population is infected with at least one type of vector-borne pathogen (CIESIN, 2007; WHO, 2004a). Vector-borne plant and animal diseases, including several newly recognized pathogens, reduce agricultural productivity and disrupt ecosystems throughout the world. These diseases profoundly restrict socioeconomic status and development in countries with the highest rates of infection, many of which are located in the tropics and subtropics. Although this workshop summary provides an account of the individual presentations, it also reflects an important aspect of the Forum philosophy. The workshop functions as a dialogue among representatives from different sectors and allows them to present their beliefs about which areas may merit further attention. These proceedings summarize only the statements of participants in the workshop and are not intended to be an exhaustive exploration of the subject matter or a representation of consensus evaluation. Vector-Borne Diseases : Understanding the Environmental, Human Health, and Ecological Connections, Workshop Summary (Forum on Microbial Threats) summarizes this workshop.