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Some of our earliest experiences of the conclusive force of an argument come from school mathematics: faced with a mathematical proof, we cannot deny the conclusion once the premises have been accepted. Behind such arguments lies a more general pattern of 'demonstrative arguments' that is studied in the science of logic. Logical reasoning is applied at all levels, from everyday life to advanced sciences, and a remarkable level of complexity is achieved in everyday logical reasoning, even if the principles behind it remain intuitive. Jan von Plato provides an accessible but rigorous introduction to an important aspect of contemporary logic: its deductive machinery. He shows that when the forms of logical reasoning are analysed, it turns out that a limited set of first principles can represent any logical argument. His book will be valuable for students of logic, mathematics and computer science.
In mathematics we are interested in why a particular formula is true. Intuition and statistical evidence are insufficient, so we need to construct a formal logical proof. The purpose of this book is to describe why such proofs are important, what they are made of, how to recognize valid ones, how to distinguish different kinds, and how to construct them. This book is written for 1st year students with no previous experience of formulating proofs. Dave Johnson has drawn from his considerable experience to provide a text that concentrates on the most important elements of the subject using clear, simple explanations that require no background knowledge of logic. It gives many useful examples and problems, many with fully-worked solutions at the end of the book. In addition to a comprehensive index, there is also a useful `Dramatis Personae` an index to the many symbols introduced in the text, most of which will be new to students and which will be used throughout their degree programme.
With Imprimatur. Introduction 1. Definition of Logic. -- Logic is the systematic study of the order to be observed in judging, reasoning, and other processes of thought in order to arrive at the knowledge of truth. This definition shows us: (1) the materials (material cause) of the logical order; (2) their elaboration (formal cause) (3) the purpose of this elaboration (final cause). 2. Materials of Logical Order. -- In some sense, these materials are acts of the mind, like apprehension, judgment, ratiocination (reasoning); but strictly speaking, only apprehensions are the material object of logical order (3). (1) By apprehension the mind represents to itself one thing or many things, without either affirming or denying anything. Concepts; the product of apprehension, are expressed by names or terms. (2) To establish a relation of identity or non-identity, of agreement or non-agreement, between the objects of two concepts, in affirming or denying one object of another is to judge. A judgment is expressed in a proposition. (3) To reason is to combine two or more judgments so as to form a new one. The complete ordinary expression of this simplest exercise of reasoning is the syllogism. 3. The Formal Cause of the Logical Order. -- The formal object of logic, or the point of view from which logic regards the acts of the mind, is their adaptability to certain processes of thought which are called either particular sciences or philosophy. These processes imply stages. The mind must grasp the numerous aspects of reality one after another before coordinating the fragmentary explications. Judgment is the first step in combining ideas; judgments in their turn become the materials of reasoning; an isolated piece of reasoning does not suffice to produce adequate knowledge of things, but several reasonings become materials of a scientific system. This rational arrangement of ideas constitutes the logical order properly so called: "the order which reason constitutes for its own acts". 4. Difference between Psychology and Logic. -- Many different sciences may be concerned with one and the same subject, if they study different properties in it, and, consequently, consider it from different points of view. They are then said to have a common (that is, undetermined) object, but each has its own formal (or determined) object. Psychology, too, has in part for its (material) object the act of human reason, but it does not study them under the same aspect (formal object) as logic does. Psychology sees in them vital acts, of which it seeks the nature and origin. Logic considers them in so far as they are cognitions of objects, objective representations, abstract and universal, furnishing the matter of the relations which reason formulates in judgments and reasonings, and arranges in a scientific system. In psychology, as in all the sciences of the real, order is the necessary condition of science; but logic has this order for its object. Its proper object is the form itself of this scientific construction.
Originally published in 1965. This is a textbook of modern deductive logic, designed for beginners but leading further into the heart of the subject than most other books of the kind. The fields covered are the Propositional Calculus, the more elementary parts of the Predicate Calculus, and Syllogistic Logic treated from a modern point of view. In each of the systems discussed the main emphases are on Decision Procedures and Axiomatisation, and the material is presented with as much formal rigour as is compatible with clarity of exposition. The techniques used are not only described but given a theoretical justification. Proofs of Consistency, Completeness and Independence are set out in detail. The fundamental characteristics of the various systems studies, and their relations to each other are established by meta-logical proofs, which are used freely in all sections of the book. Exercises are appended to most of the chapters, and answers are provided.
"This book is intended for readers who, while mature mathematically, have no knowledge of mathematical logic. We attempt to introduce the reader to the most important approaches to the subject, and, wherever possible within the limitations of space which we have set for ourselves, to give at least a few nontrivial results illustrating each of the important methods for attacking logical problems"--Preface.
The Elements of Arguments introduces such central critical thinking topics as informal fallacies, the difference between validity and truth, basic formal propositional logic, and how to extract arguments from texts. Turetzky aims to prevent common confusions by clearly explaining a number of important distinctions, including propositions vs. propositional attitudes, propositions vs. states of affairs, and logic vs. rhetoric vs. psychology. Exercises are provided throughout, including numerous informal arguments that can be assessed using the skills and strategies presented within the text.