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Lithography methods have been used for patterning of small features for decades; there are different kinds of lithography methods such as Photolithography, Nanosphere Lithography, X-Ray Lithography, Focused Ion Beam (FIB) lithography, and Electron Beam Lithography (EBL). Each of these methods is suitable for a specific purpose of patterning; between all of these methods EBL provides a better result for patterning small features as compared with other methods. In this research project, I examined EBL for fabrication of nano-antennas and then parameterized EBL variables to improve patterning. I overcame difficulties in some steps of this method to make the process easier and faster. In this experiment I analyzed the relationship between the variation of pattern size and tuning the correct irradiation dose for that pattern. According to my observations, a doubling of the physical size of pattern results in a 10 to 15% reduction in the required dose. This result helps save time by eliminating unnecessary and challenging steps. I also examined the effect of varying resist composition in three different sizes of pattern to find which resist would provide the best result: sharper edges and easier fabrication. For instance, MMA(8.5)MAA would be a good choice if the pattern features are larger than 15 microns whereas SU-8 would be great choice for patterning really small features on a nanometer scale. This research also demonstrated that Cr would be a better choice as a metallic coating as compared with Cu. Pt can also be used but by considering its price, I believed it would not be applicable for all purposes. Furthermore for metal deposition methods, sputter coating would be a better method in comparison with PVD, because it gives a less damaged device during lift-off and also Cr’s lift-off time is much less than other metals in this experiment which also saves a lot of time. Finally, I worked on developing EBL multilayer patterning processes. This method is very helpful for fabrication of complicated devices. I developed an aligninment method for multilayer patterning to make sure that my second layer of patterning would be placed in the exact spot that I wanted. Obtaining successful multilayer patterns of small features is helpful for fabricating the small complex facets of rectenna such as fabrication of metal-insulator-metal (MIM) diodes.
Technical Report from the year 2011 in the subject Design (Industry, Graphics, Fashion), University of Southern California, language: English, abstract: Currently, nanowires have aroused intensive attention due to their interesting electric and optical properties as well as potentially wide application (For example, nanowires can be used as a promising structure for transistor channels). For compound semiconductor nanowires, Nanoscale Selective Area MOCVD (Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition), or NS‐SAG, is a very attractive growth technique for the fabrication of sophisticated nanowire structure, because by using this technique, diameter and location of wires are controllable, with no incorporation of unwanted metals. It is achieved by deposition of a nano‐openingarray ‐patterned dielectric mask above the substrate. Since crystals cannot be formed on dielectric mask, nanowire growth only occurs at openings, with desired diameters and locations, as shown in Fig 1. Pattern of nano opening arrays is of vital importance since it governs the size, location and density of nanowires as wells as growth rate and behavior.
This Ph. D. thesis addresses nanostructure fabrication techniques based on electron beam lithography and their application to: the creation of ultra-fast metal-semiconductor-metal photodetectors and quantum effect transistors, the investigation of light emission from silicon, and the enhancement of resolution in magnetic force microscopy. Specifically, this thesis covers the following topics. (1) The implementation and characterization of an ultra-high resolution electron beam lithography (EBL) system created by modifying a scanning electron microscope. (2) The exploration of minimum achievable feature sizes using ultra-high resolution EBL and a lift-off process with polymethyl-methacrylate resists. 10 nm features, which are among the smallest ever achieved using EBL, have been obtained using a double shadow evaporation technique, a ultra-high resolution EBL technique, and a technique utilizing EBL, reactive ion etching, and subsequent wet etching. (3) The application of ultra-high resolution EBL technology to the fabrication of ultra-fast metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetectors. The fastest response time reported to date has been achieved in this project. (4) The fabrication and characterization of modulation doped field effect transistors. Quantum effects have been observed in a point contact device. (5) The fabrication of sub-50 nm Si structures using EBL, reactive ion etching (RIE) and subsequent wet etching for the study of photoluminescence (PL) from Si. PL has been observed from an array of 20 nm diameter pillars. And finally, (6) the application of high resolution EBL to the study of magnetic materials. Single domain magnetic particles and novel MFM tips have been fabricated.
This Thesis describes the development of a cost-effective process for patterning nanoscale metal antenna arrays. Soft ultraviolet (UV) Nanoimprint Lithography (NIL) into bilayer resist was chosen since it enables repeatable large-scale replication of nanoscale patterns with good lift-off properties using a simple low-cost process. Nanofabrication often involves the use of Electron Beam Lithography (EBL) which enables the definition of nanoscale patterns on small sample regions, typically [less than] 1 mm2. However its sequential nature makes the large scale production of nanostructured substrates using EBL cost-prohibitive. NIL is a pattern replication method that can reproduce nanoscale patterns in a parallel fashion, allowing the low-cost and rapid production of a large number of nano-patterned samples based on a single nanostructured master mold. Standard NIL replicates patterns by pressing a nanostructured hard mold into a soft resist layer on a substrate resulting in exposed substrate regions, followed by an optional Reactive Ion Etching (RIE) step and the subsequent deposition of e.g. metal onto the exposed substrate area.
Technical Report from the year 2011 in the subject Design (Industry, Graphics, Fashion), University of Southern California, language: English, abstract: Currently, nanowires have aroused intensive attention due to their interesting electric and optical properties as well as potentially wide application (For example, nanowires can be used as a promising structure for transistor channels). For compound semiconductor nanowires, Nanoscale Selective Area MOCVD (Metalorganic Chemical Vapor Deposition), or NS‐SAG, is a very attractive growth technique for the fabrication of sophisticated nanowire structure, because by using this technique, diameter and location of wires are controllable, with no incorporation of unwanted metals. It is achieved by deposition of a nano‐openingarray ‐patterned dielectric mask above the substrate. Since crystals cannot be formed on dielectric mask, nanowire growth only occurs at openings, with desired diameters and locations, as shown in Fig 1. Pattern of nano opening arrays is of vital importance since it governs the size, location and density of nanowires as wells as growth rate and behavior.
Integrated circuits, and devices fabricated using the techniques developed for integrated circuits, have steadily gotten smaller, more complex, and more powerful. The rate of shrinking is astonishing – some components are now just a few dozen atoms wide. This book attempts to answer the questions, “What comes next? and “How do we get there? Nanolithography outlines the present state of the art in lithographic techniques, including optical projection in both deep and extreme ultraviolet, electron and ion beams, and imprinting. Special attention is paid to related issues, such as the resists used in lithography, the masks (or lack thereof), the metrology needed for nano-features, modeling, and the limitations caused by feature edge roughness. In addition emerging technologies are described, including the directed assembly of wafer features, nanostructures and devices, nano-photonics, and nano-fluidics. This book is intended as a guide to the researcher new to this field, reading related journals or facing the complexities of a technical conference. Its goal is to give enough background information to enable such a researcher to understand, and appreciate, new developments in nanolithography, and to go on to make advances of his/her own. Outlines the current state of the art in alternative nanolithography technologies in order to cope with the future reduction in size of semiconductor chips to nanoscale dimensions Covers lithographic techniques, including optical projection, extreme ultraviolet (EUV), nanoimprint, electron beam and ion beam lithography Describes the emerging applications of nanolithography in nanoelectronics, nanophotonics and microfluidics
Electron-Beam Technology in Microelectronic Fabrication presents a unified description of the technology of high resolution lithography. This book is organized into six chapters, each treating a major segment of the technology of high resolution lithography. The book examines topics such as the physics of interaction of the electrons with the polymer resist in which the patterns are drawn, the machines that generate and control the beam, and ways of applying electron-beam lithography in device fabrication and in the making of masks for photolithographic replication. Chapter 2 discusses fundamental processes by which patterns are created in resist masks. Chapter 3 describes electron-beam lithography machines, including some details of each of the major elements in the electron-optical column and their effect on the focused electron beam. Chapter 4 presents the use of electron-beam lithography to make discrete devices and integrated circuits. Chapter 5 looks at the techniques and economics of mask fabrication by the use of electron beams. Finally, Chapter 6 presents a comprehensive description and evaluation of the several high resolution replication processes currently under development. This book will be of great value to students and to engineers who want to learn the unique features of high resolution lithography so that they can apply it in research, development, or production of the next generation of microelectronic devices and circuits.
Metamaterials and plasmonics are cross-disciplinary fields that are emerging into the mainstream of many scientific areas. Examples of scientific and technical fields which are concerned are electrical engineering, micro- and nanotechnology, microwave engineering, optics, optoelectronics, and semiconductor technologies. In plasmonics, the interplay between propagating electromagnetic waves and free-electron oscillations in materials are exploited to create new components and applications. On the other hand, metamaterials refer to artificial composites in which small artificial elements, through their collective interaction, creates a desired and unexpected macroscopic response function that is not present in the constituent materials. This book charts the state of the art of these fields. In May 2008, world-leading experts in metamaterials and plasmonics gathered into a NATO Advanced Research Workshop in Marrakech, Morocco. The present book contains extended versions of 22 of the presentations held in the workshop, covering the general aspects of the field, as well as design and modelling questions of plasmonics and metamaterials, fabrication issues, and applications like absorbers and antennas.
As optical counterpart of microwave antennas, optical nano-antennas are important devices for converting propagating radiation into confined/enhanced fields at nanoscale. The recent advances in resonant sub-wavelength optical antennas have now offered researchers a continuum of electromagnetic spectrum0́4from radio frequencies all the way up to X-rays0́4to design, analyze and predict new phenomena that were previously unknown. Their applications in areas with pressing needs, e.g., in sensing, imaging, energy harvesting, and disease cure and prevention, have brought revolutionary improvements. This dissertation investigates important characteristics of these plasmonic resonators through optical and electron-beam excitation using nanostructures defined by lithography as well as a newly developed direct metal patterning technique. The important challenges in optical antenna research include both fundamental understanding of the underlying physics as well as issues related to fabrication of low cost, high throughput nanostructures beyond the diffraction limit. The nanoscale feature size of optical antennas limits our ability to design, manufacture, and characterize their resonant behavior. In this regard, I demonstrate how electron-beam lithography can be coupled with a new solid-state electrochemical process to directly pattern metal nanostructures with possibility of sub-10 nm features at low cost, minimal infrastructure, and ambient conditions. Using bowtie antennas as representative of the general class of optical nano-antennas, I show how optical imaging can be used as a simple tool to characterize their resonant behavior. Further understanding of their spatial and spectral modes is gathered using finite-difference time domain simulations. The extremely high fields generated in gaps of closely coupled bowties are used in non-linear signal generation and several sum-frequency phenomena are identified. The sub-wavelength confinement of fields in optical antennas requires new techniques that can image beyond diffraction limited optical imaging. One such technique, cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging spectroscopy, which has been demonstrated to resolve sub-25 nm antenna modes, is used to map various modes of triangular and bowtie antennas. The highly localized electron-beam in CL is used to excite and map the hybridized modes of bowtie dimers, including anti-parallel 0́−dark0́+ modes. These high quality dark modes are critical for overcoming the fundamental limitations associated with wideband resonances in plasmonic resonators. Finally, I discuss the role of CL in characterizing metal nano-disks which show multiple modes and have sizes comparable to their resonance wavelengths. CL provides a unique opportunity to map the enhanced fields from interference of surface plasmons sustained on the disks. The understanding of these modes is critical for the application of resonant metal cavities for the next generation of optical devices including nano-lasers.
Nanoelectronic Device Applications Handbook gives a comprehensive snapshot of the state of the art in nanodevices for nanoelectronics applications. Combining breadth and depth, the book includes 68 chapters on topics that range from nano-scaled complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) devices through recent developments in nano capacitors and AlGaAs/GaAs devices. The contributors are world-renowned experts from academia and industry from around the globe. The handbook explores current research into potentially disruptive technologies for a post-CMOS world. These include: Nanoscale advances in current MOSFET/CMOS technology Nano capacitors for applications such as electronics packaging and humidity sensors Single electron transistors and other electron tunneling devices Quantum cellular automata and nanomagnetic logic Memristors as switching devices and for memory Graphene preparation, properties, and devices Carbon nanotubes (CNTs), both single CNT and random network Other CNT applications such as terahertz, sensors, interconnects, and capacitors Nano system architectures for reliability Nanowire device fabrication and applications Nanowire transistors Nanodevices for spintronics The book closes with a call for a new generation of simulation tools to handle nanoscale mechanisms in realistic nanodevice geometries. This timely handbook offers a wealth of insights into the application of nanoelectronics. It is an invaluable reference and source of ideas for anyone working in the rapidly expanding field of nanoelectronics.