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A 0.4 ha planting of blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) was established in Oct. 2006 to evaluate the effects of cultivar (Duke and Liberty), planting method (flat versus raised beds), weed management (sawdust mulch and hand-weed control; compost plus sawdust mulch with acetic acid, flaming, and hand-weeding used as needed; and weed mat plus hand-weeding as needed), and type and rate of fertilizer (feather meal and liquid fish emulsion at 29 and 57 kg·ha−1 N) on plant growth, yield, fruit quality, irrigation requirements, and weed presence. The site was certified organic in 2008. Plants grown on raised beds were larger than on flat ground. The leaf nitrogen concentration (%N) in all treatments ranged from slightly below normal to slightly above normal in Aug. 2007 and Aug. 2008, depending on fertilizer treatment and mulch. Plants receiving 57 kg of N·ha−1 as fish emulsion had the highest leaf %N in both years, especially when grown with weed mat mulch, while plants fertilized with the low rate of feather meal had lower than recommended %N, especially in sawdust mulched plots. In Oct. 2007, total plant dry weight (DW) was higher in 'Liberty' than 'Duke', raised beds than flat ground, and when fertilized with fish emulsion rather than feather meal, but was not affected by weed management system. Root DW was greatest in 'Duke' and lowest in plants receiving 57 kg of N·ha−1 as fish emulsion when grown with weed mat. In Oct. 2008, treatment effects on total plant DW were similar to what was observed in 2007. Root DW in 'Duke' was not affected by planting on raised beds, but was greater in plants grown with the organic mulches and fertilized with 29 kg of N·ha−1 of fish emulsion. In 'Liberty', the greatest root DW was in plants with compost plus sawdust mulch and fertilized with 29 kg of N·ha−1 of fish emulsion, while leaf area was greatest in plants grown on raised beds with sawdust mulch and fertilized with 57 kg of N·ha−1 of fish emulsion. In 2008, yield was highest when 29 kg·ha−1 N of fish was applied and when plants were grown on raised beds with weed mat in 'Duke' (0.56 kg·plant−1), and with compost plus sawdust in 'Liberty' (0.57 kg·plant−1). Fruit were firmer at harvest when plants were fertilized with fish rather than feather meal and when soil was mulched with sawdust compared to weed mat. Weed presence increased from 2007 to 2008. Hand-weeding was required in all treatments in both years. Weed mat plots had the fewest weeds, whereas compost plus sawdust mulched plots had the highest weed coverage. In weed mat plots, the only weeds that emerged were in the area of the planting hole. In the compost plus sawdust mulched treatment, acetic acid applied at a 20% concentration on hot days, provided acceptable control of annual weeds, but was moderately effective on perennial weeds. Flaming was somewhat effective when used on small weeds on hot days. Soil water content was lower through the growing season on raised beds than on flat ground, especially under weed mat; this system thus required 148% more irrigation water than did plots mulched with sawdust, and compost plus sawdust to maintain an adequate percent soil water content for blueberry plant growth. Soil temperature at 5 cm depth was higher under weed mat and more variable through the year than in the organic mulched treatments. The extra irrigation water required in weed mat mulched treatments may have been associated with increased soil temperatures and soil water evaporation, and greater plant evapotranspiration. The organic production systems studied produced typical plant growth and yield, as compared to conventional production systems.
Here is a book that sets forth vital information growers need to produce highbush blueberries effectively and efficiently. Written from the grower?s point of view, The Highbush Blueberry and Its Management presents technical information in a highly readable manner that is easy to understand. It helps growers make proper decisions before they plant--saving them both time and money. Simply by following the directions on planting, a grower could cut his post-plant mortality rate to less than ten-percent. The Highbush Blueberry and Its Management provides detailed information that growers can apply directly to their work. The author addresses various aspects of blueberry management, including how to select new cultivars, pruning techniques, soil preparation and management, harvesting, pest control, and marketing. He describes over four-dozen cultivars and discusses blueberry growth and development, fruit production, propagation, and more. The problem of pests such as birds, nematodes, and insects and mites is addressed and strategies for control of these pests are included. An appendix provides a chart, the first of its kind, to help diagnose disorders of highbush blueberries. The chart contains descriptions and discussions of these disorders to help growers identify and treat them quickly and effectively. Appendixes also include handy tables, equivalence charts, and calculations for fast and easy reference. An overview of world production of highbush blueberries informs readers of developments in other countries. This thorough and readable book is sure to become a trusted guide for growers of highbush blueberries worldwide. The book is international in scope and contains information useful to growers from Australia and Japan to Chile, Poland, and Finland, places where such information is often scarce, if available at all. Bursting with practical, helpful knowledge, The Highbush Blueberry and Its Management is a vital guidebook not just for professional growers, but for cooperative extension personnel and university-level small fruit researchers as well. With its readable style, it can also be used as an ancillary text at the graduate and advanced undergraduate level.
The effect of planting density and nitrogen (N) fertilization on growth, yield, and N partitioning in young and mature 'Bluecrop' blueberry plants was studied over a two year period. Depleted 15N-ammonium sulfate was applied at different rates and on different dates in a mature planting, and at different rates in a young, newly established planting during the first year of study (2002). Non-labeled fertilizer was applied the second year (2003). Three rates of N fertilizer (0, 100, and 200 kgha1 of N) in combination with two in-row spacing treatments (0.45 m and 1.2 m) were studied in the mature planting. In addition, three different dates of application of labeled fertilizer at the same rate was also tested. In a young planting, four N fertilizer rates (0, 50, 100 and 150 kgha-1 of N) were applied in the establishment year. In all studies, the N fertilizer was divided into three equal portions and applied from April through June. Plants were destructively harvested from the field and divided into parts on 6 to 11 dates from Feb. 2002 to Jan. 2004, depending on experiment. Plant parts were analyzed for dry weight (DW), N, and '5N concentration (%) and nitrogen derived from the fertilizer (NDFF) calculated. Shoots on mature plants were divided into small (S), medium (M), large (L) and extra large (XL) categories, based on length, and the effect of N and plant spacing on the number, DW, and flushes of growth characterized. The number of shoots per plant ranged from 249 to 298 with plants spaced at 1.2 m having more shoots than those at 0.45 m. Fifty percent of the shoots in the plant were S, whereas only 8% were XL. Nitrogen rate did not affect shoot number, but higher rates of N did increase shoot biomass and the proportion of XL and S shoots. One to four flushes of growth per shoot were recorded, with the number of flushes dependent upon shoot size; 60 to 80% of S shoots had only one flush of growth compared to 8 to 12% of XL shoots. Eighty percent of total shoot biomass was in the first flush of growth and 20% in the second or later flushes with no effect of in-row spacing or N rate. Yield per plant was 30 to 80% greater at 1.2 m than at 0.45 m. However, yield per hectare was 30 to 140% higher in plants at 0.45 m than those at 1.2 m. The roots and crown were the heaviest organs, whereas roots and leaves contained the most nitrogen. Percent biomass partitioning was affected by sampling date for all plant parts, and by in-row spacing only for the crown and three-year-old wood. In the mature planting, total plant DW was affected by sampling date, in-row spacing, and N fertilization rate. Plants at the 1.2 m in-row spacing had 32% more DW over time than those at 0.45 m, but less DW per hectare. Nitrogen fertilization increased plant DW in the second year of study, affecting mainly the younger plant parts. Plants fertilized with 200 kgha^-1 of N had the greatest total N. Nitrogen concentration (%N) varied greatly with plant part and was affected by sampling date and N fertilization rate. Younger tissues had the highest %N in spring (3.5%) and flower buds in winter (2.4%). Total plant NDFF increased from Apr. 2002 to May 2003. The lowest NDFF per plant and per hectare was found in Apr. 2002, when almost 60% of the NDFF was in the new shoots. Nitrogen fertilization rate and in-row plant spacing had an impact on total NDFF accumulated per plant and per hectare. More total NDFF was found in plants fertilized with 200 kgha^-1 of N than with 100 kgha^-1 of N, independent of spacing. Fertilizer recovery was 17% for plants at 1.2 m and 23% for plants at 0.45 m, independent of N fertilization rate. Partitioning of 15N (mg per plant part) and percent of total 15N per part changed with sampling date. Nitrogen fertilization rate and spacing did affect the total amount of fertilizer-15N present in each part, but percent partitioning of 15N was only affected by plant part. Plants at 1.2 m had a higher percentage of 15N partitioned to the crown and three-year and older wood, but reduced partitioning to large roots than plants at 0.45 m. Application date had a large effect on the total amount of NIDFF recovered in the plant at the end of the first season. Application of N fertilizer in either April or May resulted in five times more NDFF in the plant than fertilizer application in July. Percent partitioning of NDFF was also affected by application date. Late fertilization resulted in labeled N allocated mainly to small roots, leaves and shoots, whereas spring-applied fertilizer was allocated mainly to leaves and fruits. In the new planting, established using two-year-old plants, N fertilization rate affected plant dry weight, total N content, percent NDFF, and fertilizer recovery. By October, plants fertilized with 50 kgha1 of N had the largest dry weight and N accumulation. Ammonium toxicity was observed in plants fertilized with 100 and 150 kgha1 of N. Percent NDFF was 60% and 67% for the 50 and 100 kgha-1 of N, respectively. Fertilizer recovery reached a maximum of 10 to 17% in October, depending on N fertilization rate.
The objectives of this study were to: 1) determine how organic matter (incorporated vs. surface mulch) and nitrogen fertilization rate impact northern highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) plant biomass, carbon accumulation, plant losses and allocation, and mycorrhizal infection in mature plants, and 2) determine the magnitude of carbon fluxes (carbon net primary production (NPP), soil respiration, and fruit and pruning exports) and stocks within a blueberry production system, and how these are affected by typical management practices. Treatments were in effect for nine years since planting establishment; here we report on data collected in 2011 and 2012. Many of these treatments seem to have short- and long-term effects on blueberry plants. Long-term effects included the impact of pre-planting incorporation of sawdust, which as a main effect, had an overall positive effect on yield, and soil fertility, with all soil nutrients being above recommended sufficiency levels for blueberry production. Soil pH was increased by incorporation, and was affected by an incorporation by mulch interaction where incorporated bare plots had the highest pH, and the largest average plant dry weight and carbon (C) mass (3.5 and 1.7 kg/plant, respectively) despite the pH being above the recommended level for blueberry production. Incorporated plots in general, had a higher total field C stock averaging 97.6 t·ha −1 for mulched plots and 93.7 t·ha−1 for bare plots. Mulching as a C stock contributed 12.3 t·ha−1, 13% of the total C stock. Mulching as main treatment effect was not found to be beneficial in terms of increasing plant and soil C stocks. Although mulching did increase soil organic C in 2012, this did not seem to affect total soil C stocks, perhaps because soil respiration was also increased by the mulch. Nitrogen fertilizer rate did not affect plant biomass or C stock, nor did it affect soil C stocks and nutrients. Net primary productivity averaged 588 g·m−2.year and was not affected by the treatments, although incorporated plots had about 25% more NPP than non-incorporated plots. Our results have illustrated that with a goal of optimizing plant growth, yield, and C stocks, blueberry production systems that include pre-plant incorporation of organic matter without addition of surface mulch and moderate rates of nitrogen fertilizer are best. In addition, a between-row perennial grass cover crop is recommended to increase field C stocks and to limit soil erosion. The information gathered in this study can be used to estimate the contribution of C storage in temperate perennial crops to global C stocks. Recommended management practices could lead to a policy system where farmers receive incentives for sustainable low C agriculture.
Drought and mandatory water restrictions are limiting the availability of irrigation water in many important blueberry growing regions and new strategies are needed to maintain yield and fruit quality with less water. Three potential options for reducing water use, including deficit irrigation, irrigation cut-offs, and crop thinning, were evaluated for 2 years in a mature planting of northern highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L. ‘Elliott’). Treatments consisted of no thinning and 50% crop removal in combination with either full irrigation at 100% of estimated crop evapotranspiration (ETsubscript c]), deficit irrigation at 50% ET[subscript c] (applied for the entire growing season), or full irrigation with irrigation cut-off for 4–6 weeks during early or late stages of fruit development. Stem water potential was similar with full and deficit irrigation but, regardless of crop thinning, declined by 0.5–0.6 MPa when irrigation was cut-off early and by > 2.0 MPa when irrigation was cut-off late. In one or both years, the fruiting season was advanced with either deficit irrigation or late cut-off, whereas cutting off irrigation early delayed the season. Yield was not affected by deficit irrigation in plants with a full crop load but was reduced by an average of 35% when irrigation was cut-off late each year. Cutting off irrigation early likewise reduced yield, but only in the second year when the plants were not thinned; however, early cut-off also reduced fruit soluble solids and berry weight by 7% to 24%compared to full irrigation. Cutting off irrigation late produced the smallest and firmest fruit with the highest soluble solids and total acidity among the treatments, as well as the slowest rate of fruit loss in cold storage. Deficit irrigation had the least effect on fruit quality and, based on these results, appears to be the most viable option for maintaining yield with less water (2.5 ML·ha−1 less water per season). A second study was conducted in a 7-year-old field of certified organic highbush blueberry. Two cultivars (‘Duke’ and ‘Liberty’) mulched with either porous polyethylene ground cover (“weed mat”) or yard debris compost topped with sawdust (sawdust+compost) and each fertilized with either feather meal or fish emulsion were evaluated. One-year-old fruiting laterals were randomly-selected at three heights (top, middle, and bottom) on the east and west side of the plants. Bud, flower, and fruit development were monitored through fruit harvest. There was relatively little effect of mulch type or fertilizer source on the measured variables. Fruit harvest occurred ≈8 d after the fruit were fully blue and ranged from 2-25 July 2012 and 26 June-3 July 2013 in ‘Duke’ and from 1-20 Aug. 2012 and 17 July-7 Aug. 2013 in ‘Liberty’. Proportionally more fruit buds occurred on middle laterals than upper and lower laterals. The dates of bud swell and bud break were not affected by cultivar or lateral position. ‘Duke’ and ‘Liberty’ produced 6-8 and 7-9 flowers/bud, respectively. Fruit set was high in both cultivars, averaging ≈95%. However, 13-18% and 29-38 % of the initial set fruit dropped in ’Duke’ and ‘Liberty’ in late May to early June. Fruit ripening was more uniform within clusters in ‘Duke’ than in ‘Liberty’, and average fruit size was similar among harvests in ‘Duke’ but decreased by 25-40% between the first and last harvest in ‘Liberty’. Fruit matured 3−5 d earlier on the east side of the canopy than on the west side. The results suggest that pruning proportionally more on the lower part of the canopy than on the upper part will result in larger fruit at harvest than uniform pruning throughout the bush. The final study was conducted to determine the potential of applying micronized elemental sulfur (S°) by chemigation through the drip system to reduce high soil pH in a new planting of ‘Duke’ blueberry. The S° was mixed with water and injected weekly for 2 months prior to planting, as well as 2 years after planting, atrates of 0, 50, 100 and 150 kg·ha−1 per year, and was compared to the conventional practice of incorporating prilled S° into the soil prior to planting (two applications of 750 kg·ha−1 each). Chemigation quickly reduced soil pH (0-10 cm) within a month from 6.6 with no S° to 6.1 with 50 kg·ha-1 S° and 5.8 with 100 or 150 kg·ha−1 S°. The change was short-term, however, and by May of the following year, soil pH averaged 6.7, 6.5, 6.2, and 6.1 with each increasing rate of S° chemigation, respectively. The conventional treatment, in comparison, averaged 6.6 on the first date and 6.3 on the second date. In July of the following year, soil pH ranged from an average of 6.4 with no S° to 6.2 with 150 kg·ha−1 S° and 5.5 with prilled S°. Soil pH declined thereafter to as low as 5.9 with additional S° chemigation and at lower depths (10-30 cm) was similar to the conventional treatment. None of the treatments had any effect on winter pruning weight in year 1 or on yield, berry weight, and plant dry weight in year 2. Chemigation with S° can be used to quickly reduce soil pH following planting and, therefore, may be a useful practice to correct high pH problems in established blueberry fields. However, it was less effective and more time consuming than applying prilled S° prior to planting.
Northern highbush blueberry is a long-lived perennial crop that is well adapted to low soil pH conditions. The plants are often shallow rooted and absorb primarily the ammonium (NH4) form of nitrogen (N) rather than nitrate-N (NO3-N). Traditionally, commercial blueberry fields have been irrigated with overhead sprinklers and fertilized using granular sources of NH4-N. However, many new plantings of blueberry are irrigated by drip and fertigated by injecting liquid sources of N directly through the drip system. Three studies were conducted in western Oregon to compare fertigation to granular fertilizers and to develop methods to enhance the potential benefits of the practice. The first study was conducted in an established planting of 'Bluecrop' blueberry during the first 5 years of fruit production (year 3-7). Liquid sources of ammonium sulfate or urea were injected through a drip system in equal weekly applications from mid-April to early August. Granular sources of the fertilizers were applied on each side of plants, in three split applications from mid-April to mid-June, and washed into the soil using microsprinklers. Each fertilizer was applied at three N rates, which were increased as the plants matured (63 to 93, 133 to 187, and 200 to 280 kg·ha−1 N) and compared with non-fertilized treatments (0 kg·ha−1 N). Yield was 12% to 40% greater with fertigation than with granular fertilizer each year as well as with ammonium sulfate than with urea during the fourth year. Leaf N concentrations were also greater with fertigation in 4 of 5 years and greater with ammonium sulfate than with urea each year. The plants produced fewer roots with fertigation than with granular fertilizer, but the median lifespan of the roots was 60 days longer with fertigation. Soil pH declined with increasing N rates and was lower with granular fertilizer than with fertigation the first 3 years and was lower with ammonium sulfate than with urea in all but one year. Total yield averaged 32 to 63 t·ha−1 in each treatment over the first 5 years of fruit production and was greatest when plants were fertigated with ammonium sulfate or urea at rates of at least 63 to 93 kg·ha−1 N per year. The second study was conducted to evaluate the use of conventional drip and alternative micro irrigation systems in six newly planted cultivars ('Earliblue', 'Duke', 'Draper', 'Bluecrop', 'Elliott', and 'Aurora') of northern highbush blueberry. The drip system included two lines of tubing on each side of the row with in-line drip emitters at every 0.45 m. The alternative systems included geotextile tape and microsprinklers. The geotextile tape was placed alongside the plants and dispersed water and nutrients over the entire length. Microsprinklers were installed between every other plant at a height of 1.2 m. Nitrogen was applied by fertigation at annual rates of 100 and 200 kg·ha−1 N by drip, 200 kg·ha−1 N by geotextile tape, and 280 kg·ha−1 N by microsprinklers. By the end of the first season, plant size, in terms of canopy cover, was greatest with geotextile tape, on average, and lowest with microsprinklers or drip at the lower N rate. The following year, canopy cover was similar with geotextile tape and drip at the higher N rate in each cultivar, and was lowest with microsprinklers in all but 'Draper'. In most of the cultivars, geotextile tape and drip at the higher N rate resulted in greater leaf N concentrations than microsprinklers or drip at the lower N rate, particularly during the first year after planting. By the third year, yield averaged 3.1 to 9.1 t·ha−1 among the cultivars, but was similar with geotextile tape and drip at either N rate, and was only lower with microsprinklers. Overall, drip was more cost effective than geotextile tape, and fertigation with 100 kg·ha−1 N by drip was sufficient to maximize early fruit production in each cultivar. Microsprinklers were less effective by comparison and resulted in white salt deposits on the fruit. The final study was conducted in a new planting of 'Draper' blueberry to identify methods to increase the efficiency of fertigation with N fertilizer. Previous research indicated that more N was needed by fertigation during first year or two after planting because, unlike granular fertilizer, which could be applied by hand around the base of the plants, at least half of the N injected through the drip system was applied between the plants and beyond the root system. Twelve treatments were included in the present study, including four with different drip configurations, six with alternative fertilizers, and two to determine whether pre-plant or late-season applications of N fertilizer was beneficial with fertigation in blueberry. After 2 years, total plant dry weight was 28% to 58% greater with one or two drip lines near the base (crown) of the plants than with two lines located at 20 cm on each side of the row, even when granular or slow-release fertilizer was applied in early spring prior to fertigation with the wider drip lines. Wider drip lines often resulted in lower leaf N concentrations than other treatments and increased salinity (electrical conductivity) in the root zone. The use of alternative fertilizers such as urea sulfuric acid was effective at reducing soil pH but resulted in the same plant dry weight as liquid urea, while humic acids with N and other nutrients increased root dry weight by an average of 60% relative to any other treatment, including a control that contained the same nutrients. Pre-plant and extended N application had no measureable effect on plant growth. Overall, the results of these studies indicate that fertigation was generally more beneficial than granular applications of N fertilizer and, in new plantings, was most effective when drip lines were located near the base of the plants. Humic acids were also useful for increasing root production during establishment.
Northern highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) prefers acidic soils with high organic matter while growers in eastern Washington utilize amended soils with high native pH and low organic matter content. These edaphic conditions can influence nutrient cycling and plant available forms, which can affect plant growth, development, and fruit production. Furthermore, in eastern Washington, the semi-arid climate provides extended growing conditions after harvest for early-fruiting cultivars. This may require growers to continue nitrogen (N) fertilizer applications postharvest to support vegetative growth that could benefit fruit production in the following years. However, postharvest N applications could be detrimental as it may stimulate excessive vegetative growth, reduce floral bud set, and increase the risk of winter injury. The overall objective of this study was to provide baseline data to guide future nutrient recommendations for eastern Washington organic blueberry growers with an emphasis on N. Two experiments were conducted, and the sub-objectives were: 1) Determine optimal organic N fertilizer sources and rates and 2) Evaluate the impacts of postharvest N applications on fruit bud set and cold hardiness in early-fruiting ‘Duke’ blueberry. In experiment one, treatments included: 1) Blood meal; 2) TRUE 402 fish emulsion; 3) WISErganic; and 4) Combination (40% blood meal and 60% WISErganic). Fertilizer rate was split within source at 57, 112, and 168 kg·ha-1 N. The postharvest N experiment included four treatments varying in timing of N application. No yield and vegetative growth differences were observed across the fertilizer source and rate experiment during the two years in which this study was conducted. Leaf N concentrations increased with higher rates of N application. For postharvest N experiment, fruit bud set was similar across treatments and susceptibility of buds to cold was low across the treatments. While not statistically different, average plant yield in two years tended to increase with later fertilizer application dates. The lack of treatment differences can be attributed to plant age and the short duration of the experiment since blueberry plants can store nutrients in their tissues. Further years of data collection are required to better understand how these perennial plants are responding to these treatments.