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The importance of salmon to the Pacific Northwestâ€"economic, recreational, symbolicâ€"is enormous. Generations ago, salmon were abundant from central California through Idaho, Oregon, and Washington to British Columbia and Alaska. Now they have disappeared from about 40 percent of their historical range. The decline in salmon numbers has been lamented for at least 100 years, but the issue has become more widespread and acute recently. The Endangered Species Act has been invoked, federal laws have been passed, and lawsuits have been filed. More than $1 billion has been spent to improve salmon runsâ€"and still the populations decline. In this new volume a committee with diverse expertise explores the complications and conflicts surrounding the salmon problemâ€"starting with available data on the status of salmon populations and an illustrative case study from Washington state's Willapa Bay. The book offers specific recommendations for salmon rehabilitation that take into account the key role played by genetic variability in salmon survival and the urgent need for habitat protection and management of fishing. The committee presents a comprehensive discussion of the salmon problem, with a wealth of informative graphs and charts and the right amount of historical perspective to clarify today's issues, including: Salmon biology and geographyâ€"their life's journey from fresh waters to the sea and back again to spawn, and their interaction with ecosystems along the way. The impacts of human activitiesâ€"grazing, damming, timber, agriculture, and population and economic growth. Included is a case study of Washington state's Elwha River dam removal project. Values, attitudes, and the conflicting desires for short-term economic gain and long-term environmental health. The committee traces the roots of the salmon problem to the extractive philosophy characterizing management of land and water in the West. The impact of hatcheries, which were introduced to build fish stocks but which have actually harmed the genetic variability that wild stocks need to survive. This book offers something for everyone with an interest in the salmon issueâ€"policymakers and regulators in the United States and Canada; environmental scientists; environmental advocates; natural resource managers; commercial, tribal, and recreational fishers; and concerned residents of the Pacific Northwest.
Wild Steelhead Trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, in the Puget Sound are currently in decline, and very little is known about the early life history of these threatened fish. This study evaluated consequences of early life growth in terms of survival to smolt or adult stages. The objectives of this study were to determine whether significant size-selective mortality (SSM) in Steelhead could be detected between freshwater stages and returning adults; and if so, how the magnitude of size selectivity varied among reaches categorized by three different precipitation zones (snow, mixed rain-snow, or rain). Wild Steelhead in the Skagit River basin were sampled as juveniles, smolts, and adults, and scales were measured to compare back-calculated freshwater growth rates and size distributions of rearing juveniles with individuals that survived from an earlier life stage to the smolt and adult stages. Linear regression of scale radius (SR) and fork length indicated that SR was a reasonable predictor of fork length during freshwater residency. Back-calculated size-at-annulus estimates indicated that fish sampled as adults grew significantly faster to age 1, 2, and 3 annuli compared to fish sampled as juveniles, and faster to the age 2 and 3 annuli compared to fish sampled as smolts. Within precipitation zones, fish sampled as juveniles were consistently smaller at each freshwater annulus compared to those same freshwater annuli on fish sampled as adults. An increased disparity in size-at-annuli 2 and 3 between fish sampled as juveniles, smolts, and adults suggests that fast growth during the period at which Steelhead smoltify is vitally important to survival to adulthood. These findings provide evidence that survival among life stages is an important dynamic in wild Steelhead, and can be attributed, in part, to size attained at earlier life stages. Efforts for recovery of threatened Puget Sound Steelhead could benefit by considering growth- and size-selective mortality in freshwater environments, and identifying factors that limit early life growth at a finer scale of habitat, for example among sub-basins or precipitation zones.
This beautiful and definitive guide brings together the world's lead leading expert on North American trout and salmon, Robert Behnke, and the foremost illustrator in the field, Joseph Tomelleri. North America is graced with the greatest diversity of trout and salmon on earth. From tiny brook trout in mountain streams of the Northeast, to cutthroat trout in the rivers of the Rockies, to Chinook salmon of the Pacific, the continent is home to more than 70 types of trout and salmon. How this came to be, how they are related, and what makes them unique -- and so breathtaking -- is the story of Trout and Salmon of North America. The more than 100 illustrations of trout and salmon by Joseph Tomelleri showcased here exhibit a genius for detail, coloration, and proportion. Each portrait is made from field notes, streamside observations, photographs, and specimens collected by the artist. The result is a set of the most accurate and stunning illustrations of fish ever created. Robert Behnke has distilled 50 years of his research and writing about trout and salmon in completing this book. No one understands better than Behnke the diversity and conservation issues concerning these fishes or communicates so lucidly the biological wonders and complexities of their particular beauty. Also included are more than 40 richly detailed maps that clearly show the ranges of populations of trout and salmon throughout North America. An irresistible delight for anyone who appreciates natural history, Trout and Salmon of North America is a master guide to the natural elegance of our native fishes.
Researchers have devoted considerably less attention to steelhead trout than to Chinook salmon, their anadromous counterparts in the Central Valley. In an effort to fill a gap in the existing literature, we used acoustic telemetry to examine the movements and survival of juvenile hatchery and natural steelhead trout. More than 1400 individuals were implanted with acoustic tags over a five-year period. Hatchery fish (n=1400) came from Coleman National Fish Hatchery while natural smolts came from the Napa River (n=21). We found that survival of hatchery-reared juvenile steelhead trout was low in the Sacramento River above Colusa, CA in all years (20.5%, 33.7%, 43.3%, 21.3%, and 29.0%). We also observed low smolt success rates to the Pacific Ocean in all years (5.6% ± 3.6 SE). Those smolts that successfully navigated to the Pacific Ocean typically responded to an increase in discharge in the Sacramento River. Natural smolts captured and tagged in the Napa River had much higher survival rates to the Pacific Ocean (60% ± 16.0 SE), and 60% of fish that entered the coastal ocean were detected at Point Reyes, CA. Natural smolts exited from the river to the estuary quickly (27.7 km d−1). The majority of detections (79%) occurred during the ebb tide, and nearly all smolts were moving in the direction of discharge (91%) as they exited the mouth of the Napa River and entered the San Francisco Bay Estuary. Once smolts reached the coastal ocean, their migration rates greatly decreased (4.1 km d−1 ± 1.2 SE). In addition to the field studies conducted with juvenile steelhead trout, we conducted laboratory studies to assess the impact of implanting smolts with acoustic tags. We found that there was no significant difference in the size of control smolts (FL or weight) compared to smolts implanted with Vemco V7 and V9 transmitters from the initial to the final measurement. Overall, 15% of V7 transmitters and 25% of V9 transmitters were shed by hatchery- reared steelhead over the course of the 143-day study. While this rate was higher than expected, it did not affect our survival estimates until the rates of tag shedding increased above 35%.