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The hominin fossil record documents a history of critical evolutionary events that have ultimately shaped and defined what it means to be human, including the origins of bipedalism; the emergence of our genus Homo; the first use of stone tools; increases in brain size; and the emergence of Homo sapiens, tools, and culture. The Earth's geological record suggests that some evolutionary events were coincident with substantial changes in African and Eurasian climate, raising the possibility that critical junctures in human evolution and behavioral development may have been affected by the environmental characteristics of the areas where hominins evolved. Understanding Climate's Change on Human Evolution explores the opportunities of using scientific research to improve our understanding of how climate may have helped shape our species. Improved climate records for specific regions will be required before it is possible to evaluate how critical resources for hominins, especially water and vegetation, would have been distributed on the landscape during key intervals of hominin history. Existing records contain substantial temporal gaps. The book's initiatives are presented in two major research themes: first, determining the impacts of climate change and climate variability on human evolution and dispersal; and second, integrating climate modeling, environmental records, and biotic responses. Understanding Climate's Change on Human Evolution suggests a new scientific program for international climate and human evolution studies that involve an exploration initiative to locate new fossil sites and to broaden the geographic and temporal sampling of the fossil and archeological record; a comprehensive and integrative scientific drilling program in lakes, lake bed outcrops, and ocean basins surrounding the regions where hominins evolved and a major investment in climate modeling experiments for key time intervals and regions that are critical to understanding human evolution.
This paper reviews the experimental findings describing human physiological adaptations induced by chronic or repeated cold exposure. The adaptations are classified as acclimatization when they occur naturally as a result of climatic or seasonal changes in temperature, or as acclimation when they occur in response to artificial or experimental manipulations of the ambient thermal environment. Three different patterns of cold adaptation can he identified. Habituation, the most common pattern observed in both acclimatization and acclimation studies, is characterized by a blunted shivering and vasoconstrictor response to cold exposure. Habituation appears to require only brief, intermittent cold exposures to he induced, and can develop when only small body regions are exposed unprotected to cold. It allows extremity skin temperatures to be maintained higher during cold exposure. The higher skin temperatures coupled with the absence of shivering are advantageous in that manual dexterity and comfort are enhanced. In one acclimation study in which subjects were exposed to moderate cold conditions for a prolonged period, a metabolic form of cold acclimation appeared to develop. This adaptation was characterized by an enhanced shivering thermogenesis during cold exposure. When individuals acclimatize or acclimate to cold conditions severe enough to repeatedly cause a significantly body temperature fall, an insulative pattern of adaptation develops, characterized by enhanced mechanisms for body heat conservation. The mechanisms determining the pattern of adaptation to chronic cold exposure appear related to type of cold exposure conditions, the amount of body heat lost and the degree to which shivering thermogenesis compensates for heat loss and defends body temperature.
This generously illustrated book tells the story of the human family, showing how our species' physical traits and behaviors evolved over millions of years as our ancestors adapted to dramatic environmental changes. In What Does It Means to Be Human? Rick Potts, director of the Smithsonian's Human Origins Program, and Chris Sloan, National Geographic's paleoanthropolgy expert, delve into our distant past to explain when, why, and how we acquired the unique biological and cultural qualities that govern our most fundamental connections and interactions with other people and with the natural world. Drawing on the latest research, they conclude that we are the last survivors of a once-diverse family tree, and that our evolution was shaped by one of the most unstable eras in Earth's environmental history. The book presents a wealth of attractive new material especially developed for the Hall's displays, from life-like reconstructions of our ancestors sculpted by the acclaimed John Gurche to photographs from National Geographic and Smithsonian archives, along with informative graphics and illustrations. In coordination with the exhibit opening, the PBS program NOVA will present a related three-part television series, and the museum will launch a website expected to draw 40 million visitors.
The activities of the Food and Nutrition Board's Committee on Military Nutrition Research (CMNR, the committee) have been supported since 1994 by grant DAMD17-94-J-4046 from the U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command (USAMRMC). This report fulfills the final reporting requirement of the grant, and presents a summary of activities for the grant period from December 1, 1994 through May 31, 1999. During this grant period, the CMNR has met from three to six times each year in response to issues that are brought to the committee through the Military Nutrition and Biochemistry Division of the U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine at Natick, Massachusetts, and the Military Operational Medicine Program of USAMRMC at Fort Detrick, Maryland. The CMNR has submitted five workshop reports (plus two preliminary reports), including one that is a joint project with the Subcommittee on Body Composition, Nutrition, and Health of Military Women; three letter reports, and one brief report, all with recommendations, to the Commander, U.S. Army Medical Research and Materiel Command, since September 1995 and has a brief report currently in preparation. These reports are summarized in the following activity report with synopses of additional topics for which reports were deferred pending completion of military research in progress. This activity report includes as appendixes the conclusions and recommendations from the nine reports and has been prepared in a fashion to allow rapid access to committee recommendations on the topics covered over the time period.
When survival is challenged by the cold, animals react by employing both behavioral and physiological solutions. Depending on the magni tude of the cold stress and the nature of the adjustment, simple avoidance or sophisticated capacity or resistance compensations may be used. Thus, migration, shelter seeking, metabolic and insulative compen sation, torpor, and freezing avoidance and tolerance are successful tac tics used by diverse groups of animals. To understand and appreciate the benefits of these tactics, it is necessary to examine not only the well being of the whole animal but also their basic underlying mechanisms. In ad dition, it is also of fundamental importance to grasp how seasonal cold affects the survivorship and reproductive success of populations when confronted by a general reduction in primary productivity and an elevated energy cost for maintenance (e. g. in endotherms). In this regard, a synthetic overview which integrates aspects of cell biology, biochem istry, physiology, neurobiology, behavior, and population biology should be a fruitful approach in providing a holistic understanding on how animals adapt to cold. The present volume is an attempt to achieve such an overview; its objective is to provide a depth and breadth of coverage that is essential to a full appreciation of animal adaptation to cold. It is the hope of the contributing authors that this book will serve as an effective reference text for all senior undergraduate and graduate students as well as research scientists with an interest in cold physiology.
The Arthur M. Sackler Colloquia of the National Academy of Sciences address scientific topics of broad and current interest, cutting across the boundaries of traditional disciplines. Each year, four or five such colloquia are scheduled, typically two days in length and international in scope. Colloquia are organized by a member of the Academy, often with the assistance of an organizing committee, and feature presentations by leading scientists in the field and discussions with a hundred or more researchers with an interest in the topic. Colloquia presentations are recorded and posted on the National Academy of Sciences Sackler colloquia website and published on CD-ROM. These Colloquia are made possible by a generous gift from Mrs. Jill Sackler, in memory of her husband, Arthur M. Sackler.
Wide-ranging and inclusive, this text provides an invaluable review of an expansive selection of topics in human evolution, variation and adaptability for professionals and students in biological anthropology, evolutionary biology, medical sciences and psychology. The chapters are organized around four broad themes, with sections devoted to phenotypic and genetic variation within and between human populations, reproductive physiology and behavior, growth and development, and human health from evolutionary and ecological perspectives. An introductory section provides readers with the historical, theoretical and methodological foundations needed to understand the more complex ideas presented later. Two hundred discussion questions provide starting points for class debate and assignments to test student understanding.
Every year, countless runners, endurance athletes, and outdoor enthusiasts discover the sport of trail running. Whether they run for peace of mind, appreciation of nature, or competition, they find a sport unlike any other. Where the Road Ends: A Guide to Trail Running captures the excitement, intensity, and appeal of the outdoors. From training and preparation to overcoming nature’s obstacles, it’s all here, accompanied by detailed instruction, expert insights, and stunning color photography. Inside you’ll find these features: • Techniques for running over dirt, sand, roots, and rock • Equipment recommendations based on terrain, distance, and conditions • Safety guidelines for navigation, injury, and water crossings • Conditioning programs for all levels of runners • Strategies for improving race-day performance Whether you are an experienced road runner looking for new challenges or an extreme athlete pushing your physical limits, look no further than Where the Road Ends, the authoritative guide for conquering the trails, terrain, and conditions of the great outdoors.