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There are individual differences in children's emotional experiences, and cultural context is believed to play an important role in emotion socialization (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Cumberland, 1998). However, little is known about emotion socialization in children from collectivist cultures such as India (e.g., Raval, Martini, & Raval, 2010). In this study, I attempt to understand cross culturally how maternal meta-emotion philosophy (MEP; Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1996) is related to children's emotional expression of anxiety, somatic problems, and anger. Children (ages 10-13 yrs) and their mothers completed self-report measures on temperament, emotion-related socialization, anxiety, somatic complaints, and anger. The three cultural groups examined were Caucasians in the U.S. (n = 40), Indian Americans in the U.S. (n = 31), and Indians in India (n = 64). The Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire (EATQ; Capaldi & Rothbart, 1992) was completed by the mother who also filled out a measure, Emotion-Related Parenting Styles Self-Test (ERPSST; Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1997) that assessed parenting style based on Gottman's MEP theory (Gottman et al., 1996), and the children reported their levels of anxiety by responding to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC; Spielberger, 1973), somatic complaints by completing the Symptom Questionnaire (SQ, Kellner, 1987), and anger, by filling out the Anger Expression Scale for Children (AESC; Steele, Legerski, Nelson, & Phipps, 2009). The two temperament factors used in this study were negative affect (NA; one's proneness to experience emotional distress) and effortful control (EC; one's self-regulation of attention and impulsive behavior). And, the role of maternal socialization practices that may contribute to cultural differences in child emotional outcomes was examined. First, it was hypothesized that children's NA and EC may predict differences in children's expression of negative emotions. It was found that NA was a positive predictor of all three emotional outcomes, namely anxiety, somatic complaints, and anger, but EC was not significantly predictive of negative emotional outcomes. The interaction between EC and coaching was found to be predictive of both somatic complaints and anger in children. Second, gender and MEP differences in emotional outcomes, as well as interactions between MEP and gender were explored. Results indicated that emotion dismissing MEP was a positive predictor of anxiety in children, and emotion coaching MEP was a negative predictor of somatic complaints in children. Emotion coaching and dismissing were associated with anxiety and anger expression in the same way for boys and girls. Interestingly, emotion dismissing MEP was associated with more somatic problems in girls, but not in boys. Third, cultural variations in relations between temperament, maternal meta-emotion socialization, and child's emotional outcomes were statistically tested using correlations, ANOVAs, and regressions. It was hypothesized that Indian children would have higher levels of anxiety, and Caucasian children would report more anger expression. Results found that the Indian children were significantly more anxious, and higher on NA (as reported by mothers) than Indian American and Caucasian children. As hypothesized, Indian mothers reported more emotion dismissing MEP and less emotion coaching MEP compared to the Indian Americans and Caucasians. Emotion dismissing was related to anger expression in Indian children, and emotion coaching was associated with anger in Indian Americans. Both coaching and dismissing MEPs were related to gender differences in anxiety, somatic complaints, and anger among Caucasian children. Implications of the results for parenting, intervention, and future research are discussed.
There are individual differences in children's emotional experiences, and cultural context is believed to play an important role in emotion socialization (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Cumberland, 1998). However, little is known about emotion socialization in children from collectivist cultures such as India (e.g., Raval, Martini, & Raval, 2010). In this study, I attempt to understand cross culturally how maternal meta-emotion philosophy (MEP; Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1996) is related to children's emotional expression of anxiety, somatic problems, and anger. Children (ages 10-13 yrs) and their mothers completed self-report measures on temperament, emotion-related socialization, anxiety, somatic complaints, and anger. The three cultural groups examined were Caucasians in the U.S. (n = 40), Indian Americans in the U.S. (n = 31), and Indians in India (n = 64). The Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire (EATQ; Capaldi & Rothbart, 1992) was completed by the mother who also filled out a measure, Emotion-Related Parenting Styles Self-Test (ERPSST; Gottman, Katz, & Hooven, 1997) that assessed parenting style based on Gottman's MEP theory (Gottman et al., 1996), and the children reported their levels of anxiety by responding to the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children (STAIC; Spielberger, 1973), somatic complaints by completing the Symptom Questionnaire (SQ, Kellner, 1987), and anger, by filling out the Anger Expression Scale for Children (AESC; Steele, Legerski, Nelson, & Phipps, 2009). The two temperament factors used in this study were negative affect (NA; one's proneness to experience emotional distress) and effortful control (EC; one's self-regulation of attention and impulsive behavior). And, the role of maternal socialization practices that may contribute to cultural differences in child emotional outcomes was examined. First, it was hypothesized that children's NA and EC may predict differences in children's expression of negative emotions. It was found that NA was a positive predictor of all three emotional outcomes, namely anxiety, somatic complaints, and anger, but EC was not significantly predictive of negative emotional outcomes. The interaction between EC and coaching was found to be predictive of both somatic complaints and anger in children. Second, gender and MEP differences in emotional outcomes, as well as interactions between MEP and gender were explored. Results indicated that emotion dismissing MEP was a positive predictor of anxiety in children, and emotion coaching MEP was a negative predictor of somatic complaints in children. Emotion coaching and dismissing were associated with anxiety and anger expression in the same way for boys and girls. Interestingly, emotion dismissing MEP was associated with more somatic problems in girls, but not in boys. Third, cultural variations in relations between temperament, maternal meta-emotion socialization, and child's emotional outcomes were statistically tested using correlations, ANOVAs, and regressions. It was hypothesized that Indian children would have higher levels of anxiety, and Caucasian children would report more anger expression. Results found that the Indian children were significantly more anxious, and higher on NA (as reported by mothers) than Indian American and Caucasian children. As hypothesized, Indian mothers reported more emotion dismissing MEP and less emotion coaching MEP compared to the Indian Americans and Caucasians. Emotion dismissing was related to anger expression in Indian children, and emotion coaching was associated with anger in Indian Americans. Both coaching and dismissing MEPs were related to gender differences in anxiety, somatic complaints, and anger among Caucasian children. Implications of the results for parenting, intervention, and future research are discussed.
Children in diverse cultures are socialized to understand, express, and regulate their emotions in ways that are considered adaptive in their culture. In early childhood, parents play an important role to teach children about the feeling rules and display rules of emotions in their culture. Parents’ emotion socialization is guided by their goals and beliefs about emotions, which are likely to vary based on the culturally specific value and norm in diverse culture. However, much of the research in the field of emotion socialization was still primarily based on European American families. Research in other cultural groups, including Chinese culture, is key to unpack the role of culture in emotion socialization. The current dissertation attempts to shed light on similarities and differences of maternal emotion socialization and its relations with children’s emotional competence both across and within culture. The first chapter provides a general introduction to the current state of literature in the role of parents and culture in emotion socialization and details how the current dissertation will contribute to the field. Chapter 2, 3, and 4 detailed three studies that used data from the same larger cross-cultural study that involved European American mothers from Columbus, Ohio in the United States and Chinese mothers living in Hong Kong and Beijing. The first study was a mixed-methods study that examined the quantitative differences in emotion socialization goals, beliefs, and practices of mothers across the three cultural groups. Importantly, qualitative findings were provided to help explain and contextualize our quantitative findings. Results indicated that Chinese mothers had different emotion socialization beliefs and goals and responded to children’s negative emotions differently when compared to European American mothers. Within-cultural differences between Hong Kong and Beijing mothers were also discussed. The third chapter presents a qualitative study that examined themes emerged from semi-structured interviews that assess mothers’ meta-emotion philosophy from the three cultural groups. Data of ten mothers from each cultural group were drawn for more in-depth analysis. Findings from thematic analysis revealed new dimensions of meta-emotion philosophy and other important themes that shed light onto why and how mothers across cultures differ in their beliefs and practices in emotion socialization. This qualitative study supported that parents’ meta-emotion philosophy was grounded in their cultural context and that the framework of meta-emotion philosophy has to be expanded to consider other cultural models and values. The study presented in chapter 4 conducted a series of hierarchical multiple regression analyses to test the associations between maternal acceptance of children’s negative emotions, supportive and training responses to children’s negative emotions, and children’s emotional competence (emotion understanding, regulation, and problem behaviors) and whether culture moderated these associations. Results indicated that culture significantly moderated the effect of maternal training responses on children’s emotional competence and revealed differences across and within culture. The last chapter provides an overall discussion of all the findings in the current dissertation.
This publication brings together leading emotion researchers whose work has pioneered new questions, methods, and levels of analyses for investigating development and individual differences in how infants and children attend to, categorize, understand, talk about, and regulate emotions. Topics include infant attention and processing of emotions, developmental affective psychophysiology, emotions in maltreated children, attention biases and anxiety, emotional competence and social interactions, cultural differences in emotion socialization, gender and parent-child reminiscing about emotional events, family emotion conversations and socio-cognitive development, and causal reasoning about emotions. These contributions lay a foundation for new scientific discoveries in developmental affective science, and they inform evidence-based practices and interventions aimed at promoting children’s emotional wellbeing. Given the centrality of emotions to children’s development, this volume provides a valuable resource for developmental researchers and clinicians, as well as for parents, educators, and policy makers.
Reviews the knowledge on socialization processes from earliest childhood through adolescence and beyond. This book presents theories and findings pertaining to family, peer, school, community, media, and other influences on individual development. It covers the important areas of genetics and biology, cultural psychology, and affective science.
The Oxford Handbook of Human Development and Culture provides a comprehensive synopsis of theory and research on human development, with every chapter drawing together findings from cultures around the world. This includes a focus on cultural diversity within nations, cultural change, and globalization. Expertly edited by Lene Arnett Jensen, the Handbook covers the entire lifespan from the prenatal period to old age. It delves deeply into topics such as the development of emotion, language, cognition, morality, creativity, and religion, as well as developmental contexts such as family, friends, civic institutions, school, media, and work. Written by an international group of eminent and cutting-edge experts, chapters showcase the burgeoning interdisciplinary approach to scholarship that bridges universal and cultural perspectives on human development. This "cultural-developmental approach" is a multifaceted, flexible, and dynamic way to conceptualize theory and research that is in step with the cultural and global realities of human development in the 21st century.
How are we to understand the complex forces that shape human behav ior? A variety of diverse perspectives, drawing on studies of human behavioral ontogeny, as well as on humanity's evolutionary heritage, seem to provide the best likelihood of success. It is in an attempt to synthesize such potentially disparate approaches to human develop ment into an integrated whole that we undertake this series on the genesis of behavior. In many respects, the incredible burgeoning of research in child development over the last decade or two seems like a thousand lines of inquiry spreading outward in an incoherent starburst of effort. The need exists to provide, on an ongoing basis, an arena of discourse within which the threads of continuity between those diverse lines of research on human development can be woven into a fabric of meaning and understanding. Scientists, scholars, and those who attempt to translate their efforts into the practical realities of the care and guidance of infants and children are the audience that we seek to reach. Each requires the opportunity to see-to the degree that our knowledge in given areas permits-various aspects of development in a coherent, integrated fash ion. It is hoped that this series-which will bring together research on infant biology, developing infant capacities, animal models, the impact of social, cultural, and familial forces on development, and the distorted products of such forces under certain circumstances-will serve these important social and scientific needs.
This handbook offers a comprehensive review of the research on emotional development. It examines research on individual emotions, including happiness, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust, as well as self-conscious and pro-social emotions. Chapters describe theoretical and biological foundations and address the roles of cognition and context on emotional development. In addition, chapters discuss issues concerning atypical emotional development, such as anxiety, depression, developmental disorders, maltreatment, and deprivation. The handbook concludes with important directions for the future research of emotional development. Topics featured in this handbook include: The physiology and neuroscience of emotions. Perception and expression of emotional faces. Prosocial and moral emotions. The interplay of emotion and cognition. The effects of maltreatment on children’s emotional development. Potential emotional problems that result from early deprivation. The Handbook of Emotional Development is an essential resource for researchers, clinicians/professionals, and graduate students in child and school psychology, social work, public health, child and adolescent psychiatry, pediatrics, and related disciplines.
This study investigated young children's expectations regarding others' potential reactions to their emotional displays. These expectations were considered precursors to the display rules for emotional expression evident in middle childhood. Possible gender differences in the children's expectancies for the expression of anger, sadness and fear were examined. Preschool and early grade school children (ages 4.3-6.4 & 7.0-8.7, respectively) were presented with eight hypothetical narratives illustrated with felt puppets. The identity of an audience figure accompanying the protagonist of each narrative varied between subjects in three experimental conditions: mother, father, and same-sex peer. The narratives also varied the social context within which the protagonist expressed an emotion. The scenarios were qualitatively coded to assess if children expected favorable or unfavorable reactions from the audience figure to the protagonist's emotional display. The expression of anger elicited substantial unfavorable expectancies from children in both age groups but the expression of sadness and fear did not. It was theorized that the display rules for these emotions have different developmental timelines. Anger receives early socialization pressure while sadness and fear are not sanctioned until after approximately age 8. Children expected peers and parents to respond equally unfavorably to expressions of anger, suggesting that both groups are important agents in emotional socialization at this age. Unlike the preschoolers, the early grade school children used social information about a provocateur's status and intentions to mediate their expectations regarding audience reactions to anger. The only significant gender difference to emerge was that the older girls expected mothers to be more disapproving of anger than fathers or peers. It was suggested that gender role requirements for emotional expression may not be enforced until children reach grade school ages and that the same-sex parent may come to be the primary socialization agent for these roles. Asian-American children held fewer unfavorable expectancies for the expression of anger than children of other ethnicities. African-American girls held more unfavorable expectancies for the expression of anger than African-American boys. Future research should elaborate upon the specific content and developmental timelines associated with different cultures' emotional display rules.
This sourcebook provides a comprehensive volume addressing the critical issues in the study of gender, emotion socialization, and the development of emotional competence. Each of the chapters provides evidence for the pervasive role that gender plays in emotional development and provides a framework to better understand the development of emotion in boys and girls. These include: The Role of Gender in the Socialization of Emotion: Key Concepts and Critical Issues Gender Differences in Caregiver Emotion Socialization of Low-Income Toddlers Gender and Parents' Reactions to Children's Emotion During the Preschool Years Parent-Child Discussions of Anger and Sadness: The Importance of Parent and Child Gender During Middle Childhood Emotion Socialization in Adolescence: The Roles of Mothers and Fathers Socialization of Emotion: Who Influences Whom and How? As these chapters demonstrate, gender impacts growth in a multitude of developmental domains, including the development of emotion and emotional competence. although emotions are, in part, biological, the means of emotions and appropriateness of emotional expression are socialized. In the early years of life, socialization primarily takes place via interactions within the family, and characteristics of both parents and children may affect the process of emotion socialization. Gender is one critically important moderator of what and how children learn about emotion because culture determines the appropriateness of emotional displays for males and females. This is the 128th volume of the Jossey-Bass quarterly report series New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development. The mission of New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development is to provide scientific and scholarly presentations on cutting edge issues and concepts in the field of child and adolescent development. Each volume focuses on a specific "new direction" or research topic, and is edited by an expert or experts on that topic.