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This study investigates the hypothesis that there is an increased requirement for command and control systems when US Army and Marine Corps forces conduct large unit joint operations as members of a field army. Based on this hypothesis, this study examines the employment of the US Tenth Army during the World War II Okinawa campaign (April-June 1945). The principal focus of this study is on the eighty-two day ground operation against the Japanese Thirty-Second Army on Okinawa. This study addresses the key question of how a field army, consisting of both Army and Marine Corps forces, might structure an effective command and control system in order to synchronize operational maneuver and air support for the purpose of defeating a concentrated enemy force. The historical and contemporary analyses are performed by using the command and control guidelines which support the execution of Airland Battle doctrine outlined in Field Manual 100-5, Operations (Final Draft, dated 28 October 1985). These guidelines include: the operational flexibility of the campaign plan; the ability of the command and control system to maintain the tempo of the operation in order to capitalize on success; and the need to optimize the use of time to facilitate the friendly force being more agile than the enemy.
Command and control (C2) is an essential element of the art and science of warfare. No single specialized function, either by itself or combined with others, has a purpose without it. Commanders are responsible for C2. However, C2 is also of great concern to staff officers and some staff specialists. Some understand C2 to be a distinct, specialized function—similar to logistics, intelligence, and information operations. C2 does have its own procedures, considerations, and vocabulary. It operates separately from other functions, yet in coordination with them. Through C2, commanders initiate and integrate all military functions and operations toward a common goal—mission accomplishment. How one understands C2 depends on the perspective from which one approaches its study. Some study and discuss C2 as technological means and resources. Others see C2 as people only. Still others focus on C2 as an organization. Finally, C2 has been discussed as a set of procedures. In practice, however, C2 is a commander and a C2 system—a combination of people, organization, technological means and resources, and procedures. Commanders have exercised C2 throughout history. They have performed many of the same C2 functions as long as warfare has existed. Doctrine provides military organizations with a common philosophy and language. It enhances unity of effort. FM 6-0 establishes and explains the Army's command and control (C2) doctrine principles. FM 6-0 is the Army's key integrating manual for C2. It provides the basis for C2 doctrine, tactics, techniques, and procedures in all Army publications. It promotes common understanding of the fundamentals and concepts of C2 in Army operations, and supports joint and Army doctrine. It supersedes chapters 1 through 4, chapter 6, and appendixes G, I, K, and L of FM 101-5. FM 6-0 provides doctrine on C2 for tactical Army echelons (corps and below). FM 6-0 establishes mission command as the C2 concept for the Army. It focuses on the premise that commanders exercise C2 over forces to accomplish missions. It emphasizes fundamentals and concepts rather than specific equipment or systems, although it discusses the role of equipment and systems in supporting C2. It includes insights from Force XXI initiatives and digitization. Supporting and extending leadership doctrine found in FM 22-100, it defines control within command and control, and covers decision making during execution. FM 6-0 provides doctrine for information management, a contributor to information superiority. (See FM 3-13.) While intelligence is an information product essential in C2, the doctrine addressing information and information management is not intended to change or replace intelligence doctrine in the FM 2 (formerly FM 34) series of field manuals. FM 6-0 applies to commanders of all Army organizations. However, it focuses on tactical commanders and leaders at corps-level and below. With appropriate modifications, it can apply to other Army commands and to Army elements of joint and multinational headquarters. It applies to digitized, analog, and hybrid (combination digitized/analog) units and organizations. The doctrine in FM 6-0 forms the foundation for Army Education System instruction in C2.
ADP 5-0 provides doctrine on the operations process. It describes fundamentals for effective planning, preparing, executing, and assessing operations. It describes how commanders, supported by their staffs, employ the operations process to understand situations, make decisions, direct action, and lead forces to mission accomplishment. To comprehend doctrine contained in ADP 5-0, readers should first understand the fundamentals of unified land operations described in ADP 3-0. As the operations process is the framework for the exercise of command and control, readers should also understand the fundamentals of command and control and mission command described in ADP 6-0. Readers must also understand how the Army ethic guides decision making throughout the operations process (see Army doctrine on the Army profession).
The Army believes that the U.S. will continue to be engaged in an era of ¿persistent conflict¿ -- a period of protracted confrontation among states, non-state, and individual actors increasingly willing to use violence to achieve their political and ideological ends. This manual is a revolutionary departure from past doctrine. Commanders will employ offensive, defensive, and civil support operations simultaneously as part of an interdependent joint force to seize, retain, and exploit the initiative, accepting prudent risk to create opportunities to achieve decisive results. This ed. will take us into the 21st century urban battlefields among the people without losing our capabilities to dominate the higher conventional end of the spectrum of conflict.
FM 5-0 (C1), The Operations Process, constitutes the Army's view on planning, preparing, executing, and assessing operations. It describes how commanders-supported by their staffs, subordinate commanders, and other military and civilian partners-exercise mission command during the conduct of full spectrum operations. It describes how design assists commanders with understanding complex problems and developing an operational approach to solve or manage those problems throughout the conduct of operations. This manual applies to all Army forces. The principal audience for this manual is Army commanders and unit staffs (officers, noncommissioned officers, and Soldiers). Commanders and staffs of Army headquarters serving as a joint task force or a multinational headquarters should also refer to applicable joint or multinational doctrine for the exercise of command and control. Trainers and educators throughout the Army also use this manual.
FM 5-0 (including Change 1), The Operations Process, constitutes the Army's view on planning, preparing, executing, and assessing operations. It describes how commanders-supported by their staffs, subordinate commanders, and other military and civilian partners-exercise mission command during the conduct of full spectrum operations. It describes how design assists commanders with understanding complex problems and developing an operational approach to solve or manage those problems throughout the conduct of operations. This manual applies to all Army forces. The principal audience for this manual is Army commanders and unit staffs (officers, noncommissioned officers, and Soldiers). Commanders and staffs of Army headquarters serving as a joint task force or a multinational headquarters should also refer to applicable joint or multinational doctrine for the exercise of command and control. Trainers and educators throughout the Army also use this manual. Terms that have joint or Army definitions are identified in both the glossary and the text. Glossary references: The glossary lists most terms used in field manual (FM) 5-0 that have joint or Army definitions. Terms for which FM 5-0 is the proponent field manual (the authority) are indicated with an asterisk in the glossary. Text references: Definitions for which FM 5-0 is the proponent field manual are printed in boldface in the text. These terms and their definitions will be incorporated into the next revision of FM 1-02, Operational Terms and Graphics. For other definitions in the text, the term is italicized and the number of the proponent manual follows the definition. FM 5-0 applies to the Active Army, the Army National Guard (ARNG)/Army National Guard of the United States (ARNGUS), and the United States Army Reserve (USAR) unless otherwise stated. Topics: Ch1 - Fundamentals of the Operations Process Ch2 - Planning Ch3 - Design Ch4 - Preparation Ch5 - Execution Ch6 - Assessment Appendix A - Command Post Organization and Operations Appendix B - The Military Decision Making Process Appendix C - Troop Leading Procedures Appendix D - Guidelines for Commander's Planning Guidance Appendix E - Army Operation Plan and Order Format Appendix F - Task Organization Appendix G - Running Estimates Appendix H - Formal Assessment Plans Appendix I - Rehearsals Appendix J - Military Briefings
ADP 3-0, Operations, constitutes the Army's view of how to conduct prompt and sustained operations across multiple domains, and it sets the foundation for developing other principles, tactics, techniques, and procedures detailed in subordinate doctrine publications. It articulates the Army's operational doctrine for unified land operations. ADP 3-0 accounts for the uncertainty of operations and recognizes that a military operation is a human undertaking. Additionally, this publication is the foundation for training and Army education system curricula related to unified land operations. The principal audience for ADP 3-0 is all members of the profession of arms. Commanders and staffs of Army headquarters serving as joint task force (JTF) or multinational headquarters should also refer to applicable joint or multinational doctrine concerning the range of military operations and joint or multinational forces. Trainers and educators throughout the Army will use this publication as well.
With the publication of Field Circular 100-16-1, Theater Army, Army Group, and Field Army Operations, the U.S. Army has explicitly recognized the need to develop doctrine and organizations at the Field Army and Army Group level to provide command and control for the operational level of war. The extant literature and doctrine for command and control at the division level and below is extensive. However, very little material exists on the subject of command and control at the operational level of war, particularly with regard to the execution of the AirLand Battle doctrine. Historically, World War II provides a wealth of well documented material on Field Army and Army Group operations by the American, German, and Soviet Armies. Research was conducted into the experiences of those three armies with particular emphasis being placed on the exercise of command and control at the corps through army group level. An analytical model was developed that facilitated the process. Results of the historical examination were then extrapolated forward into the doctrinal environment of AirLand Battle to illuminate command and control issues at the operational level. (Author).
PURPOSEThis manual provides direction for the corps headquarters: what it looks like, how it is organized, how its staff operates, how it is commanded and controlled, and how it operates in full spectrum operations. This publication replaces the previous edition of the Army's corps operations manual and describes the organization and operations of the corps. It reflects current doctrine on the elements of full spectrum operations: offense, defense, and stability or civil support. This manual addresses these elements without regard to priority. This manual- * Incorporates the Army's operational concept, full spectrum operations. * Describes the stand alone corps headquarters. * Links brigade combat team and division doctrine with theater army doctrine. It describes the principles underlying the Army modular corps. * Shows a corps headquarters designed for four primary employment roles-in priority-an Army intermediate tactical headquarters, an ARFOR, a joint force land component command headquarters, and a joint task force headquarters. * Recognizes that the corps headquarters normally requires augmentation with elements from theater-level organizations for selected missions. * Discusses when serving as a joint task force or joint force land component command, the corps may require a separate subordinate headquarters to serve as the ARFOR or may need augmentation to serve as both the joint headquarters and the ARFOR. * Introduces a staff organization that reflects the warfighting functions discussed in Field Manual (FM) 3-0.* Describes the three designated command and control facilities: main command post, tactical command post, and mobile command group. * Describes the ability of the corps headquarters to readily accept joint augmentation from a standing joint force headquarters core element or other joint manning and equipping source. SCOPE This publication is organized into five chapters and five appendixes: * Chapter 1 introduces the modular corps headquarters concept. * Chapter 2 discusses how the corps headquarters is organized. * Chapter 3 describes corps command and control. * Chapter 4 describes how the corps headquarters conducts full spectrum operations. * Chapter 5 details how a corps headquarters transitions to the headquarters of a joint task force or joint force land component command. * Appendix A explains sustainment in support of the corps headquarters. * Appendix B discusses how the corps plans, prepares, executes, and assesses joint fires. * Appendix C describes how the Army Network Enterprise Technology Command/9th Signal Command and other organizations support LandWarNet operations for the corps headquarters. * Appendix D describes how the corps headquarters conducts airspace command and control. * Appendix E describes Air Force planning considerations for corps operations.