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Feather maintenance is postulated to be a very important behavior in the daily lives of birds. However, while several functions of feather maintenance have been proposed, relatively few studies have experimentally investigated feather maintenance. This thesis reports on feather maintenance, particularly preening and bathing, in two chapters. Chapter I, a review of the literature, describes proposed functions of feather maintenance and the behaviors and structures involved (feathers, uropygial glands, preening and bathing behavior). Chapter II reports research on the preening and bathing behaviors of captive Orange-winged Amazon parrots (Amazona amazonica), and the impact of such behaviors on their time budgets. In Expt. 1, the postures and sequence of postures performed during bathing behavior are described. Parrots (N = 12) were sprayed with water using a hand-held spray wand simulating rainfall; induced bathing behavior was also video recorded and analyzed. Complete bathing bouts were found to contain eight postures between the initial water spray event to drying, post-bath. Expt. 2 describes time allocated to the most time consuming behaviors (resting, feeding and preening) during three, 2-hr observation periods (morning, midday, afternoon). Behaviors of all parrots (N = 12) were recorded via continuous sampling. Results suggest that parrots spend ~90% of their time resting, feeding and preening. A crepuscular pattern of feeding and resting was evident, with more feeding in the morning and afternoon and more resting in the midday; preening followed no such pattern and was stable across the day. In Expt. 3, parrots (N = 12) were sprayed with water and bathing behavior was recorded for a 15-min midday spray period. Behaviors were recorded for 1 hr before and 1 hr after the spray period. Parrots spent ~9 min bathing and had an ~2 min latency-to-bathe period during the 15-min spray episode. Resting and feeding times did not differ significantly before vs. after the spray period, while preening significantly decreased after the spray period. In Expt. 4 parrots (N = 11) were sprayed for 20 min on an initial spray event (ISE) on the same day, then sprayed at 2-, 4- or 6-day refractory intervals (RI) thereafter. By RI 6, bathing time was increased and latency-to-bathe time was decreased compared to the ISE. Lastly, in Expt. 5, parrots (N = 11) were sprayed for 20 min in the morning, midday and afternoon, and behaviors were recorded 1 hr before and 1 hr after each spray period. Parrots bathed for ~11 min in the morning, then bathing decreased across the day, while latency-to-bathe was ~1.5 min across the day. As in Expt. 3, resting and feeding remained unchanged, while preening significantly decreased 1 hr after the spray period in the midday. Sham-bathing (non-sprayed parrots bathing in the presence of sprayed and bathing parrots) showed trends similar to bathing and latency-to-bathe times in Expts. 4 and 5. Results suggest that captive Orange-winged Amazon parrots: 1) perform bathing behavior similar to that reported for their wild counterparts; 2) bathe in the morning for ~10 min; and 3) have a>4 d bathing refractory period. Bathing and preening are important components of feather maintenance, suggesting that regular bathing opportunities should be included in captive parrot husbandry to assure parrot welfare.
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The purpose of this dissertation was to examine if individual differences in personality and cognition explain why some parrots develop abnormal behaviors in captivity while others do not. Orange-winged Amazon parrots, Amazona amazonica, were used as the model species. Twenty parrots were hatched from an established breeding colony of A. amazonica. Chicks were parent-reared with human interaction until fledging at approximately 60 days post-hatch. The first study developed a multi-dimensional personality assessment for Amazona amazonica using subjective ratings, and then experimentally tested the prediction that a state difference in attention bias for threat would correlate with personality differences. The results showed that two personality dimensions, Neuroticism and Extraversion, could be reliably assessed using subjective assessment, and that personalities were stable over a one year period of time. Individual differences in Neuroticism were correlated with biologically relevant differences in cognition, as measured by attention biases for environmental stimuli. The strategies used by the parrots when learning the cognitive task were evaluated in a separate study. The parrots were able to alter their search strategies when reward contingencies changed, demonstrating cognitive flexibility. They were also able to remember the task over a six-month period. Lateralization had a significant influence on learning set acquisition but no effect on cognitive flexibility. The final study evaluated the relationship between personality dimensions and abnormal behaviors under different housing conditions. After being reared in an enriched environment, the parrots' enrichments were removed for 20 weeks and were then replaced for an additional 20 weeks. Personality not only played a role in the severity of abnormal repetitive behaviors, but different aspects of personality were related to distinct forms of abnormal behavior. More neurotic parrots had worse feather condition across the housing periods, while more extraverted birds developed fewer stereotypies during the deprivation period and had lower levels of these behaviors after re-enrichment. The studies in this dissertation are a starting point for understanding the factors that render certain individuals more or less susceptible to environmental stress and abnormal behavior development in captivity. In addition to contributing to the basic scientific understanding of personality, and of cognitive function in Neotropical parrot species, the work has important applied implications. The methods used in these studies have promise as tools for assessing the psychological well being of captive animals.