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When Spaniards invaded their realm in 1532, the Incas ruled the largest empire of the pre-Columbian Americas. Just over a century earlier, military campaigns began to extend power across a broad swath of the Andean region, bringing local societies into new relationships with colonists and officials who represented the Inca state. With Cuzco as its capital, the Inca empire encompassed a multitude of peoples of diverse geographic origins and cultural traditions dwelling in the outlying provinces and frontier regions. Bringing together an international group of well-established scholars and emerging researchers, this handbook is dedicated to revealing the origins of this empire, as well as its evolution and aftermath. Chapters break new ground using innovative multidisciplinary research from the areas of archaeology, ethnohistory and art history. The scope of this handbook is comprehensive. It places the century of Inca imperial expansion within a broader historical and archaeological context, and then turns from Inca origins to the imperial political economy and institutions that facilitated expansion. Provincial and frontier case studies explore the negotiation and implementation of state policies and institutions, and their effects on the communities and individuals that made up the bulk of the population. Several chapters describe religious power in the Andes, as well as the special statuses that staffed the state religion, maintained records, served royal households, and produced fine craft goods to support state activities. The Incas did not disappear in 1532, and the volume continues into the Colonial and later periods, exploring not only the effects of the Spanish conquest on the lives of the indigenous populations, but also the cultural continuities and discontinuities. Moving into the present, the volume ends will an overview of the ways in which the image of the Inca and the pre-Columbian past is memorialized and reinterpreted by contemporary Andeans.
This dissertation examines agricultural strategies farmers employed to cope with the consequences of war and drought in the southern Peruvian Andes during the Late Intermediate Period (A.D. 1100-1450) using paleoethnobotanical data from the fortified hilltop site Ayawiri and findings from excavations of a terrace complex flanking the site. During the Late Intermediate Period, lifeways dissolved into a period of endemic warfare after the collapse of Tiwanaku. At the same time a well-documented, century-long drought surely threatened food security. Interested in how farmers responded to this political and climatic disjuncture, I analyzed 108 flotation samples collected from the residential area of one of the largest hillfort communities in the region. Macrobotanical samples were collected from hearths, houses, kitchens, patios, and middens at Ayawiri. These data indicate that as trade networks broke down and imported lower elevation crops such as maize were no longer options during the Late Intermediate Period, residents turned to locally-grown crops including quinoa, potatoes and other tubers. I conducted multi-variate analysis of Chenopodium spp. seeds and found both quinoa and kañawa in copious quantities. Weedy chenopod seeds were very rare in these samples. These data contribute a deeper understanding of pre-Colonial crop selection, phenotypes, and weed management in the Andes. Macrobotanical data also contribute to an understanding of camelid grazing strategies employed during the Late Intermediate Period. Herds were intensively grazed in fields and foddered on crops and rarely brought to wetland microenvironments.I carried out excavations and analysis of the form of the terrace complex that flanks the hillfort at Ayawiri to determine when the field complex was constructed and how farmers managed this landscape. Using a combination of ceramic sylistic seriation, AMS dating, and a novel application of optically stimulated luminescence dating I found that the terraces below the site were constructed during the Late Intermediate Period using household labor.Macrobotanical data and information from the terrace excavations contribute two important conclusions about the impact of drought and consequences of warfare on lifeways during the Late Intermediate Period. First, the adoption of an intensification strategy -- terrace farming -- and a dependence on only a limited array of cultivars indicate the consequences of warfare profoundly influenced Ayawiri farming strategies. The local community built their fields and grazed their herds near their homes rather than taking advantage of lacustrine or riverine microenvironments, which would have buffered against crop loss due to climate unpredictability. Additionally, I recovered sling stones in the terraces indicating this built landscape served a defensive function. The second conclusion I came to is the expansive terrace system around the site did not require centralized labor to create or farm, but rather was the product of households adapting to the challenges of their time. In sum, this study provides an important understanding of agriculture, land use strategies, and sociopolitical organization of farm labor during the Late Intermediate Period.
Africa can achieve self sufficiency in food production through adoption of innovations in the agriculture sector. Numerous soil fertility and crop production technologies have been generated through research, however, wide adoption has been low. African farmers need better technologies, more sustainable practices, and fertilizers to improve and sustain their crop productivity and to prevent further degradation of agricultural lands. The agricultural sector also needs to be supported by functional institutions and policies that will be able to respond to emerging challenges of globalization and climate change.
Based on an International Workshop held in Arusha, Tanzania, this book presents state-of-the-art papers, real world applications, and innovative techniques for combating land degradation. It offers recommendations for effectively using weather and climate information for sustainable land management practices.
This edited book provides a comprehensive account of the sustainable intensification process through various forms of case studies and scientific approaches studied across the globe. It also focuses on the agroecosystem services and their subsequent management for ecological integrity. The book helps to understand the interconnection of food, nutrition, economic growth, and environmental security on the planet. It provides comprehensive information with photographic illustration and various other forms of scientific databases on sustainable intensification of agroecosystems. The book also supports decision-making, strategies, and policy formulation for effective implementation of sustainable intensification towards higher productivity along with maintenance and management of agroecosystem services. Proper sustainable intensification of agroecosystem services and their management by maintaining ecological harmony is the future prospect for sustainable development. High input agriculture gives rise to a high-energy footprint, agricultural pollution, resource depletion, loss of agro-biodiversity, and decline of human health. Through this connection, the sustainable intensification approach addresses the advanced food security, sustainability, and overall prosperity of humankind. The book is helpful for both undergraduate and postgraduate students, policymakers, the farming community, as well as the scientific community across the globe to understand the concept of sustainable intensification and its application in relevant fields for proper management of agroecosystems services.
Agricultural trade and development is a backbone of international trade. It includes agricultural trade patterns, commercial policy, international institutions such as WTO, Tariff and non-tariff barriers in international trade, exchange rates, biotechnology and trade, agricultural labour mobility, land reform, environment and the areas and issues spanning these areas. This book brings together leading research and issues in this fundamental field.