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This guide is based on earlier practical field applications of approaches contained in a FAO working paper (Taylor et al., 2010). The working paper's detailed technical section has served as a background resource document for the present guide. The practical approach described in Part Two of this guide has been developed largely during practical and training workshops carried out in Viet Nam with a focus on H5N1 HPAI (Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza). Work carried out by the authors in Indonesia, Thailand, China, Egypt and other African countries has also contributed to the preparation of this guide. Disease prevention and control, at the national or at local farm level, whether funded by the state or with private resources, must be planned and implemented in proportion to the level of risk associated with a particular animal disease. Planning for disease prevention and control should be risk-based, and prevention and control measures should be proportionate to the risk assessed. It is unrealistic to implement a very costly programme against a disease hazard that has low risk. Furthermore, it is recognized that in livestock production and marketing systems the different stakeholders (people, groups, organizations) may be affected by and react to disease hazards in different ways and may face and perceive and accept different levels of risk. The various stakeholders may also be affected in different ways by the prevention and control measures adopted. Ideally, prevention and control measures should be proportionate to the risk faced by each stakeholder; otherwise compensatory mechanisms may be needed to ensure compliance and equity. Two technical issues should be addressed together in order to achieve this goal. 1. Understanding the livestock production systems and how the stakeholders operate and the decisions they make within the livestock production systems. 2. Evaluation of disease risks within the livestock production systems in question and of measures to reduce those risks. The first issue involves what in economics is called 'value chain analysis'; the second issue entails what in veterinary epidemiology is called 'risk analysis'. The purpose of this guide is to show how elements of value chain analysis and risk analysis can be combined to form a practical and useful approach to planning for disease prevention and control measures. This approach should be risk-based and people-centred. Some of the key questions answered using these analysis techniques are: - Which processes within different production and marketing systems carry risk for disease spread, and what are their relative contributions to overall risk? - Which production systems carry more overall risk and therefore require more regulation/intervention? For example, with respect to H5N1 HPAI, should priority be given to backyard poultry, or do other commercial systems require urgent attention? - Who has most to gain or lose through risk reduction interventions? The purpose of applying the combination of value chain and risk analyses is to address the problem of disease risk and contribute to disease control planning. Therefore, the value chain analysis needs to focus specifically on elements that either increase disease risk or that are critical in disease risk management, thus avoiding the need for a complete value chain analysis; otherwise there is the danger that value chain mapping and analysis are carried out in unnecessary detail or with the wrong focus. The best way to achieve this is to ensure that veterinary epidemiologists and social scientists work together throughout the process at all levels. The methodological approach presented here can be flexible and should not be seen as a rigid prescription. It is important to work at different levels of detail. A clear overview is needed to ensure that no important risks in the value chains are omitted, while attention to detail is needed in identifying and appraising risk reduction measures. The amount of detailed data and detailed analysis required depends on objectives of disease control decision-making. The iterative nature of data gathering is an ongoing process, and therefore it is not necessary or practical to get everything perfect before making decisions. The value chain/risk analysis process will identify areas that require more or less detailed data so that data collection efforts are focused and prioritized. The processes described may be carried out by a few experts working together or with full involvement of all stakeholders through a series of workshops, discussions or personal interviews, depending on the availability of experts, time constraints and the budget available. The analyses and monitoring of risk in value chains should be carried out in preparedness for disease and not only in response to outbreaks. An understanding of the “usual” patterns of movements of animals, products, materials, people, vehicles, etc., leads to a better understanding of how disease could spread if introduced into the system at different places. This in turn allows for planning of strategies to reduce risks. It is important for veterinary services to monitor changes in value chains and assess how these chains may evolve in time and space (e.g. sudden reactions to market shocks, or longterm trends in consumer preferences and supply). Variations in short- or longer-term prices between areas within a country or across national boundaries may affect flows and alter the relative importance of different value chains, which in turn could affect disease risk. Risk factors can change seasonally and over the long term as livestock sectors develop. Veterinary services need to monitor the changes in the risk factor and respond to different risk levels. At the regional level the principles of this approach can be applied to rapidly assess production systems, the epidemiological situation of disease and the socio-political situation within several countries to identify those areas where disease control interventions for specific diseases may be feasible or not in the short or medium term. The processes of monitoring and evaluating the livestock value chains and assessing risks should never become an office-based and expert-orientated activity. The chains themselves are not run, managed or driven by the risk analyst, who is not part of these chains. The livestock value chains are run by people who work and run businesses within the chains. They are managed by the people who determine how the chain functions and how stakeholders within the chains interact. Finally, the chains are driven by the consumers who demand food of a certain quality and in certain quantities. If the risk analyst gets to know the people and interacts with them in a professional manner, offering his/her knowledge on animal disease and animal health, the chains will function better, then he/she will be considered an adviser. Such advisers will have a major impact on how these chains can avoid the introduction of disease and how they can manage and eliminate disease quickly, efficiently and cost-effectively.
Value chain analysis enriches disease risk assessment providing a framework for interdisciplinary collaboration, which seems to be in increasing demand for problems concerning infectious livestock diseases.
'An apple a day keeps the doctor away'. While it may be true that a balanced diet is a prerequisite for good health, how good is what we eat and drink every day? And is it actually possible to fulfil every customer desire with the vast array of foodstuffs on offer? BSE, dioxin in eggs, EHEC sprouts: in the light of repeated food safety crises, the issue of quality assurance as well as customer-oriented quality management has become of prime importance for the agri-food industry. This sector features highly complex value-added chains, which means that quality deficiencies or contaminations can quickly lead to far-reaching problems with serious consequences for consumers and businesses. What can be done to reduce this vulnerability to crises? The only solution is to establish systematic methods of quality management which will facilitate the establishment and protection of high standards across companies. This book will show which methods are available and how they can reasonably be used. The authors present an easy-to-read guide which not only includes the most important legal provisions, standards and accreditation and certification procedures, but also develops practical quality assurance strategies and shows how they can be implemented within the agri-food industry.
This eBook is a collection of articles from a Frontiers Research Topic. Frontiers Research Topics are very popular trademarks of the Frontiers Journals Series: they are collections of at least ten articles, all centered on a particular subject. With their unique mix of varied contributions from Original Research to Review Articles, Frontiers Research Topics unify the most influential researchers, the latest key findings and historical advances in a hot research area! Find out more on how to host your own Frontiers Research Topic or contribute to one as an author by contacting the Frontiers Editorial Office: frontiersin.org/about/contact.
Animal health and economics are closely linked. Any decision taken to prevent, control and eliminate an animal disease is based not only on the technical knowledge available about a particular disease but also on the effectiveness and socio-economic aspects associated with interventions and mitigation measures implemented by governments, producers and all the actors along the livestock value chains. Economic rationale drives decisions in assessing particular investments which are likely to result in a benefit for society or for a specific stakeholder, including livestock farmers and communities. These guidelines prepared by FAO will contribute to a better understanding of the importance of economic analysis when assessing the impact of a particular animal disease in production, trade, market access, food security and livelihoods of rural communities, or when designing or implementing an animal health strategy at national, regional or global level. This framework will provide a good communication tool between animal health technicians, veterinarians and economists in developing countries and will encourage a well informed collaboration between veterinarians, animal health experts, economists and social scientists for livestock and socio-economic development. Economic analysis should be an essential part of animal disease policies and disease management strategies.
The occurrence and spread of an animal health threat can be prevented when a timely assessment of the risk is carried out to inform prevention, response and control measures. These technical guidelines on rapid risk assessment (RRA) are designed as a simple and practical tool to be used by veterinary services to build risk assessment capacities and assist decision-makers in conducting qualitative RRA on the emergence, occurrence and/or spread of animal health threats. Using available evidence, data and information, a multidisciplinary team can conduct an RRA in a short time (within two weeks). The publication provides a simple and flexible methodology for conducting a RRA when facing a disease event. Eight steps in the RRA process are described and detailed examples are provided. The final outcomes of the RRA provide robust evidence and guidance for decision-makers in designing timely prevention, control and eradication measures that contribute to sustainable livelihoods, animal health, public health and enhanced food security.
"Increasing global population and improvements in the standard of living mean that there is a rapidly increasing demand for animal protein with intensified animal production. The international movement of animals and animal products has been made cheaper and faster through improved transport infrastructure. Increasing human and livestock population has placed pressure on wildlife habitats, resulting in closer contact between wildlife, domestic animal populations and humans with spreading and re-emergence of diseases as consequences of these risk factors. Managing these disease threats poses enormous challenges and requires good quality information: what diseases exist; where they are found; what impact they are having; which populations are at risk; how we can prevent, control or eradicate these diseases. Animal disease surveillance plays a central role in providing this information. Risk-based surveillance is not a particular technique; rather, it describes a general approach to undertaking disease surveillance. The principle is simple and self-evident: the most efficient way to find disease is to survey the animal populations that are most likely to be affected. This is in contrast to the more traditional statistically-based approach of taking representative samples from a population. While the idea of risk-based surveillance is simple, the implications are complex. The approach can be much more cost-effective for some purposes, but if misused, it can lead to serious errors or it can be more expensive than traditional approaches." --Publisher's description.