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Information requirements of measurement programmes; Sampling; Basic problems and aims of sampling; Time and frequency of sampling; Overall design of sampling programmes; Procedures for obtaining samples of waters; Preparation, transport, storage, and stability of samples; The nature and importance of errors in analytical results; Random error; Systematic error; Accuracy; Effects of errors on decision making; Need to estimate analytical errors; Estimation and control of the Bias of analytical results; Detailed consideration and assessment of individual sources of Bias; Assessment of the overall Bias of analytical results; Estimation and control of the precision of analytical results; Model of Random errors; Achievement of specified accuracy by a group of laboratories; Types of inter-laboratory studies; Reporting analytical results; Reporting results close to the lower concentration limit of an analytical system; The selection of analytical methods; General precautions in water-analysis laboratories; Analytical techniques; Automatic and on-line analysis; Computers in water analysis; The scope for computing in water analysis and related activities.
Recent and forecasted advances in microbiology, molecular biology, and analytical chemistry have made it timely to reassess the current paradigm of relying predominantly or exclusively on traditional bacterial indicators for all types of waterborne pathogens. Nonetheless, indicator approaches will still be required for the foreseeable future because it is not practical or feasible to monitor for the complete spectrum of microorganisms that may occur in water, and many known pathogens are difficult to detect directly and reliably in water samples. This comprehensive report recommends the development and use of a "tool box" approach by the U.S Environmental Protection Agency and others for assessing microbial water quality in which available indicator organisms (and/or pathogens in some cases) and detection method(s) are matched to the requirements of a particular application. The report further recommends the use of a phased, three-level monitoring framework to support the selection of indicators and indicator approaches.Â