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"The main theme of this book is the interplay of Americanization and acculturation of the Japanese in the Hawaiian Islands. By acculturation the author refers to what the Nisei wanted and actually did achieve-their adaptation to American middle-class life" -- Preface.
Teaching Mikadoism is a dynamic and nuanced look at the Japanese language school controversy that originated in the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1919. At the time, ninety-eight percent of Hawai‘i’s Japanese American children attended Japanese language schools. Hawai‘i sugar plantation managers endorsed Japanese language schools but, after witnessing the assertive role of Japanese in the 1920 labor strike, they joined public school educators and the Office of Naval Intelligence in labeling them anti-American and urged their suppression. Thus the "Japanese language school problem" became a means of controlling Hawai‘i's largest ethnic group. The debate quickly surfaced in California and Washington, where powerful activists sought to curb Japanese immigration and economic advancement. Language schools were accused of indoctrinating Mikadoism to Japanese American children as part of Japan's plan to colonize the United States. Previously unexamined archival documents and oral history interviews highlight Japanese immigrants’ resistance and their efforts to foster traditional Japanese values in their American children. A comparative analysis of the Japanese communities in Hawai‘i, California, and Washington shows the history of the Japanese language school is central to the Japanese American struggle to secure fundamental rights in the United States.
This comprehensive educational history of public schools in Hawai'i shows and analyzes how dominant cultural and educational policy have affected the education experiences of Native Hawaiians. Drawing on institutional theory as a scholarly lens, the authors focus on four historical cases representing over 150 years of contact with the West. They carefully link historical events, significant people, educational policy, and law to cultural and social consequences for Native Hawaiian children and youth. The authors argue that since the early 1800s, educational policy in Hawai'i emphasizing efficiency has resulted in institutional structures that have degenerated Hawaiian culture, self-image, and sovereignty. Native Hawaiians have often been denied equal access to quality schools and resulting increased economic and social status. These policies were often overtly, or covertly, racist and reflected wider cultural views prevalent across the United States regarding the assimilation of groups into the American mainstream culture. The case of education in Hawai'i is used to initiate a broader discussion of similar historical trends in assimilating children of different backgrounds into the American system of education. The scholarly analysis presented in this book draws out historical, political, cultural, and organizational implications that can be employed to understand other Native and non-Native contexts. Given the increasing cultural diversity of the United States and the perceived failure of the American educational system in light of these changes, this book provides an exceptionally appropriate starting point to begin a discussion about past, present, and future schooling for our nation's children. Because it is written and comes from a Native perspective, the value of the "insider" view is illuminated. This underlying reminder of the Native eye is woven throughout the book in Ha'awina No'ono'o--the sharing of thoughts from the Native Hawaiian author. With its primary focus on the education of native groups, this book is an extraordinary and useful work for scholars, thoughtful practitioners, policymakers, and those interested in Hawai'i, Hawaiian education, and educational policy and theory.
This dissertation tells a local story about schools that involves all levels of government, the economy, and social relations in territorial Hawaii. It emphasizes and connects to national discussions and tensions involving the noble rhetoric of democracy and equal opportunity and the harsh realities of race and capitalism as well as transnational struggles between white settler nationalism and indigenous self-determination. It also provides an alternative narrative framework for reexamining schools and schooling as important sites of contestation where Natives and colonizers shaped and defined public education according to their needs and goals. For the white minority elite, schools represented spaces for Americanizing students as part of a larger state-building project meant to legitimize U.S. control of Hawaii. They relied on schools to socially engineer acceptance of American occupation and annexation of the islands by constructing and disseminating a historical narrative linking Hawaii's past with America's Manifest Destiny. This process involved revising, contextualizing, and naturalizing nineteenth-century American missionary "civilizing" influence, U.S. acts of aggression, and breaches of American democratic principles as part of a necessary series of benevolent linear events for making Hawaii American. Depicting the history of territorial Hawaii solely as a story of oppression and deception, however, overemphasizes the power and autonomy of professional schoolmen and business elites to convince Native Hawaiians what to believe. This narrative understates the impact of parental influence, grassroots activism, and community support in shaping and supporting how Native Hawaiian students responded to assimilationist messages in schools. It also misses other ways cultural identity, professional ambition, and ethnic pride influenced how individual Native students expressed their own desires and interests independent of white schoolmen's expectations. Native Hawaiian students, their families, and communities selected and rejected various aspects of American schooling according to their needs. While they were not impervious to all aspects of Americanization, they were not victims. Native Hawaiians understood the importance of schooling for the advancement and survival of their culture, community, and children. They saw in schools the opportunities to avoid economic and political marginalization and they actively encouraged participation as a means to secure success in an Americanizing Hawaii.
From 1924 to 1960 some of Hawai`i's public schools were segregated institutions. Unlike the segregated schools of the mainland, the main goal of the English Standard schools, as they were known, was to ensure that English-speaking children be taught in environments free from Pidgin and other native languages spoken by the majority of Hawai`i's school children. Because this segregation was linguistically-based, it was possible for children of all races and ethnicities to attend English Standard schools, but there can be no doubt that they were heavily dominated by white students in the early years of the program, much to the satisfaction of many whites throughout the Islands. Over time, though, this would change as more and more non-white students gained admission. Even though this was true, it was clear that Hawaiians were not entirely comfortable with the process of segregating students, and this was increasingly the case as the Territory of Hawai`i inched closer and closer to Statehood. This study is particularly concerned with the collective identity that developed in the period between the various groups of peoples on the Islands including: Chinese, Japanese, Native Hawaiian, Korean, Puerto Rican, and Portuguese, among others. Further, this work offers insight into the process undergone by these people as they moved from their own separate identities to a collective Hawaiian one, whose cornerstone was and continues to be the language of Pidgin. A myriad of primary and secondary sources were consulted concerning the protests, support, and ambivalence the segregated schools were met with by administrators, parents, and students. The result is a window into the process whereby Hawaiians made clear what they were willing to accept from the mainland, and what was simply too foreign and too at odds with the collective Hawaiian identity that had developed in the period. Indeed, Hawaiians, by phasing out the tracking of students into separate schools and classrooms based on their mastery of proper English by 1960, would highlight the fact that separation was unacceptable in the new state of Hawai`i. Ultimately, the practice stood in sharp contrast to what they envisioned for themselves as both Hawaiians and Americans.