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A hazard analysis for the test firing of NASA's Space Launch System core stage is performed using a systems-based alternative to the traditional reliability-based method. The method used, Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA), is shown to be a versatile and powerful tool in this application and by extension the development of future space launch vehicles. The Boeing Company has been selected by NASA as the prime contractor for the Space Launch System (SLS) cryogenic stages. As such, they are working with NASA to develop a comprehensive hazard analysis for core stage test firing and eventual launch operations. Developing, testing, and launching rockets is an inherently complex and high risk endeavor. Preceding the launch itself, one of the highest risk times in the operation of a rocket is the static fire testing, also called a hot fire. Hundreds of parameters need to be monitored in real time in order to ensure the system is operating nominally and equipment damage (and possible injury or death) will not occur. Depending on the point of the testing and the resultant speed at which events are occurring, different levels of automatic safing conditions and operator actions are required to protect the vehicle. Traditionally, the way these safing conditions are derived is through the evaluation of hazard reports, which are themselves based on a "reliability" model: hazards are seen to arise from the failure of individual components and are thus primarily mitigated through increasing component reliability or adding in redundancy. With the level of complexity and required safety of today's launch systems, it is beneficial to evaluate a new approach to identifying the underlying hazards in a system, including ones that arise from unsafe component interactions and not simply failures
The advent of commercial launch systems has brought about a new age of space launch vehicle design. In order to survive in a competitive market, space launch providers must design systems with new technologies in shorter development times. This changing nature of space launch vehicle design requires a new way to perform safety analysis. Traditional hazard analysis techniques do not deliver adequate insight early in the design process, when most of the safety-related decisions are made. Early design decisions are often made using "lessons-learned" from previous launch systems, rather than interactive feedback from the new vehicle design actually being developed. Furthermore, traditional techniques use reliability theory as their foundation, resulting in the use of excessive design margin and redundancy as the "default" vehicle design choices. This equivocation of safety and reliability may have made sense for simpler launch vehicles of the past, but most modern space launch vehicle accidents have resulted from incorrect software specifications, component interaction accidents, and other design errors independent of the reliability of individual components. The space launch industry needs safety analysis methods and design processes that identify and correct these hazards early in the vehicle design process, when modifications to correct safety issues are more effective and less costly. This work shows how Systems-Theoretic Process Analysis (STPA) can been used as a powerful tool to identify, mitigate, and possibly eliminate hazards throughout the entire space launch vehicle lifecycle. This work begins by reviewing traditional hazard analysis techniques and the changing nature of launch vehicle accidents. Next, it describes how STPA can be integrated into the space launch vehicle lifecycle to design safer systems. It then demonstrates the safety-guided design of a small-lift launch vehicle using STPA. Finally, this work shows how STPA can be used to satisfy regulatory and range safety requirements. The thesis of this work is that integration of STPA into the design of space launch vehicles can make a significant contribution to reducing launch vehicle accidents.
Endorsed by the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety (IAASS) and drawing on the expertise of the world’s leading experts in the field, Safety Design for Space Operations provides the practical how-to guidance and knowledge base needed to facilitate effective launch-site and operations safety in line with current regulations. With information on space operations safety design currently disparate and difficult to find in one place, this unique reference brings together essential material on: Best design practices relating to space operations, such as the design of spaceport facilities. Advanced analysis methods, such as those used to calculate launch and re-entry debris fall-out risk. Implementation of safe operation procedures, such as on-orbit space traffic management. Safety considerations relating to the general public and the environment in addition to personnel and asset protection. Taking in launch operations safety relating unmanned missions, such as the launch of probes and commercial satellites, as well as manned missions, Safety Design for Space Operations provides a comprehensive reference for engineers and technical managers within aerospace and high technology companies, space agencies, spaceport operators, satellite operators and consulting firms. Fully endorsed by the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety (IAASS), with contributions from leading experts at NASA, the European Space Agency (EASA) and the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), amongst others Covers all aspects of space operations relating to safety of the general public, as well as the protection of valuable assets and the environment Focuses on launch operations safety relating to manned and unmanned missions, such as the launch of probes and commercial satellites
The U.S. space program is rapidly changing from an activity driven by federal government launches to one driven by commercial launches. In 1997, for the first time commercial launches outnumbered government launches at the Eastern Range (ER), located at Cape Canaveral Air Station, Florida. Commercial activity is also increasing at the Western Range (WR), located at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. The government itself is emulating commercial customers, shifting from direct management of launch programs to the purchase of space launch services from U.S. commercial launch companies in an open, competitive market. The fundamental goal of the U.S. space program is to ensure safe, reliable, and affordable access to space. Despite the inherent danger of space launches, the U.S. space program has demonstrated its ability to protect the public. No launch site worker or member of the general public has been killed or seriously injured in any of the 4,600 launches conducted at the ER and WR during the entire 50-year history of the space age. Streamlining Space Launch Range Safety discusses whether range safety processes can be made more efficient and less costly without compromising public safety. This report presents six primary recommendations, which address risk management, Africa gates, roles and responsibilities, range safety documentation [EWR 127-1]), global positioning system (GPS) receiver tracking systems, and risk standards for aircraft and ships.
Progress in space safety lies in the acceptance of safety design and engineering as an integral part of the design and implementation process for new space systems. Safety must be seen as the principle design driver of utmost importance from the outset of the design process, which is only achieved through a culture change that moves all stakeholders toward front-end loaded safety concepts. This approach entails a common understanding and mastering of basic principles of safety design for space systems at all levels of the program organisation. Fully supported by the International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety (IAASS), written by the leading figures in the industry, with frontline experience from projects ranging from the Apollo missions, Skylab, the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station, this book provides a comprehensive reference for aerospace engineers in industry. It addresses each of the key elements that impact on space systems safety, including: the space environment (natural and induced); human physiology in space; human rating factors; emergency capabilities; launch propellants and oxidizer systems; life support systems; battery and fuel cell safety; nuclear power generators (NPG) safety; habitat activities; fire protection; safety-critical software development; collision avoidance systems design; operations and on-orbit maintenance. The only comprehensive space systems safety reference, its must-have status within space agencies and suppliers, technical and aerospace libraries is practically guaranteed Written by the leading figures in the industry from NASA, ESA, JAXA, (et cetera), with frontline experience from projects ranging from the Apollo missions, Skylab, the Space Shuttle, small and large satellite systems, and the International Space Station Superb quality information for engineers, programme managers, suppliers and aerospace technologists; fully supported by the IAASS (International Association for the Advancement of Space Safety)
The safety of any space system requires a deliberate and interdisciplinary integration of the flight hardware design with the design of its operations throughout the entire lifecycle of the system. This chapter introduces the subsequent chapters that more thoroughly address safety issues associated with the operations of space vehicles, from the design of the infrastructure on ground, through launch, on-orbit, and re-entry operations. This chapter begins with a discussion of safety and risk management at the conceptual level, including several fundamental goals and definitions. The balance of the chapter describes several seminal events and lays the foundation for a graduate level education in space operations safety.
The lack of widespread education in space safety engineering and management has profound effects on project team effectiveness in integrating safety during design. On one side, it slows down the professional development of junior safety engineers, while on the other side it creates a sectarian attitude that isolates safety engineers from the rest of the project team. To speed up professional development, bridge the gap within the team, and prevent hampered communication and missed feedback, the entire project team needs to acquire and develop a shared culture of space safety principles and techniques.The second edition of Safety Design for Space Systems continues to address these issues with substantial updates to chapters such as battery safety, life support systems, robotic systems safety, and fire safety. This book also features new chapters on crew survivability design and nuclear space systems safety. Finally, the discussion of human rating concepts, safety-by-design principles, and safety management practices have also been revised and improved. With contributions from leading experts worldwide, this second edition represents an essential educational resource and reference tool for engineers and managers working on space projects. Provides basic multidisciplinary knowledge on space systems safety design Addresses how space safety engineering and management can be implemented in practice Includes new chapters on crew survivability design and nuclear space systems safety Fully revised and updated to reflect the latest developments in the field
System safety is the application of engineering and management principles, criteria, and techniques to optimize safety within the constraints of operational effectiveness, time, and cost throughout all phases of the system life cycle. System safety is to safety as systems engineering is to engineering. When performing appropriate analysis, the evaluation is performed holistically by tying into systems engineering practices and ensuring that system safety has an integrated system-level perspective.The NASA System Safety Handbook presents the overall framework for System Safety and provides the general concepts needed to implement the framework. The treatment addresses activities throughout the system life cycle to assure that the system meets safety performance requirements and is as safe as reasonably practicable.This handbook is intended for project management and engineering teams and for those with review and oversight responsibilities. It can be used both in a forward-thinking mode to promote the development of safe systems, and in a retrospective mode to determine whether desired safety objectives have been achieved.The topics covered in this volume include general approaches for formulating a hierarchy of safety objectives, generating a corresponding hierarchical set of safety claims, characterizing the system safety activities needed to provide supporting evidence, and presenting a risk-informed safety case that validates the claims. Volume 2, to be completed in 2012, will provide specific guidance on the conduct of the major system safety activities and the development of the evidence.