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The handbook centers on detection techniques in the field of particle physics, medical imaging and related subjects. It is structured into three parts. The first one is dealing with basic ideas of particle detectors, followed by applications of these devices in high energy physics and other fields. In the last part the large field of medical imaging using similar detection techniques is described. The different chapters of the book are written by world experts in their field. Clear instructions on the detection techniques and principles in terms of relevant operation parameters for scientists and graduate students are given.Detailed tables and diagrams will make this a very useful handbook for the application of these techniques in many different fields like physics, medicine, biology and other areas of natural science.
The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) is a particle detector installed on the International Space Station; it starts to record data since May 2011. The experiment aims to identify the nature of charged cosmic rays and photons and measure their fluxes in the energy range of GeV to TeV. These measurements enable us to refine the cosmic ray propagation models, to perform indirect research of dark matter and to search for primordial antimatter (anti-helium). In this context, the data of the first years have been utilized to measure the electron flux and lepton flux (electron + positron) in the energy range of 0.5 GeV to 700 GeV. Identification of electrons requires an electrons / protons separation power of the order of 104, which is acquired by combining the information from different sub-detectors of AMS, in particular the electromagnetic calorimeter (ECAL), the tracker and the transition radiation detector (TRD). In this analysis, the numbers of electrons and leptons are estimated by fitting the distribution of the ECAL estimator and are verified using the TRD estimator: 11 million leptons are selected and analyzed. The systematic uncertainties are determined by changing the selection cuts and the fit procedure. The geometric acceptance of the detector and the selection efficiency are estimated thanks to simulated data. The differences observed on the control samples from data allow to correct the simulation. The systematic uncertainty associated to this correction is estimated by varying the control samples. In total, at 100 GeV (resp. 700 GeV), the statistic uncertainty of the lepton flux is 2% (30%) and the systematic uncertainty is 3% (40%). As the flux generally follows a power law as a function of energy, it is important to control the energy calibration. We have controlled in-situ the measurement of energy in the ECAL by comparing the electrons from flight data and from test beams, using in particular the E/p variable where p is momentum measured by the tracker. A second method of absolute calibration at low energy, independent from the tracker, is developed based on the geomagnetic cutoff effect. Two models of geomagnetic cutoff prediction, the Störmer approximation and the IGRF model, have been tested and compared. These two methods allow to control the energy calibration to a precision of 2% and to verify the stability of the ECAL performance with time.
Abstract: The Cosmic Ray Energetics And Mass (CREAM) experiment is a balloon-borne, high energy particle detector designed to measure cosmic ray nuclei from protons through Iron at energies up to 1015 eV. It has succeeded in measuring this broad range of charge and energy through multiple Antarctic flights, data from the first of which will be presented here, using complementary charge and energy detectors. These included a Timing Charge Detector (TCD), a Transition Radiation Detector (TRD), a Silicon Charge Detector (SCD), and a Calorimeter. The TRD and Calorimeter provide both tracking and an energy determination. The TCD and SCD provide excellent charge resolution, of order 0.2 e. Together, these have enabled us to construct absolute spectra for individual primary nuclei, Carbon, Oxygen, Neon, Magnesium, Silicon, and Iron, as well as the less abundant secondary, Nitrogen. Our spectra agree well with previous measurements, and for several nuclei extend to the highest energies yet measured. The well-resolved charge species have also permitted us to form the secondary to primary ratios of Boron to Carbon and Nitrogen to Oxygen, also up to the highest energies measured and in agreement with previous data. Since charged particles like cosmic rays bend in magnetic fields which permeate our galaxy, traditional pointing astronomy is not possible. Instead, we use the spectra and ratios to provide us with clues to cosmic rays' origins, acceleration mechanism, and propagation history. In particular, the CREAM I Boron to Carbon ratio fits a propagation model with index of [delta] = 0.5 - 0.6 while the CREAM II primary nuclei spectra all have an index of 2.66 " 0.04. This last suggests that they all have the same acceleration mechanism, and after accounting for propagation energy loss consistent with the Boron to Carbon ratio, that the mechanism is likely Fermi first order acceleration. Finally, Nitrogen serves as a particularly useful test bed for these findings. Its ratio with Oxygen is consistent with a small amount of Nitrogen existing in the cosmic ray source, ~ 10% with respect to the source's Oxygen content, given propagation conditions again based on the Boron to Carbon ratio. At the highest energies, this source flux is seen, as expected, to emerge over the secondary flux in the Nitrogen spectrum itself.
Solar energetic particles (SEPs) emitted from the Sun are a major space weather hazard motivating the development of predictive capabilities. This book presents the results and findings of the HESPERIA (High Energy Solar Particle Events forecasting and Analysis) project of the EU HORIZON 2020 programme. It discusses the forecasting operational tools developed within the project, and presents progress to SEP research contributed by HESPERIA both from the observational as well as the SEP modelling perspective. Using multi-frequency observational data and simulations HESPERIA investigated the chain of processes from particle acceleration in the corona, particle transport in the magnetically complex corona and interplanetary space, to the detection near 1 AU. The book also elaborates on the unique software that has been constructed for inverting observations of relativistic SEPs to physical parameters that can be compared with space-borne measurements at lower energies. Introductory and pedagogical material included in the book make it accessible to students at graduate level and will be useful as background material for Space Physics and Space Weather courses with emphasis on Solar Energetic Particle Event Forecasting and Analysis. This work was published by Saint Philip Street Press pursuant to a Creative Commons license permitting commercial use. All rights not granted by the work's license are retained by the author or authors.
Accurate measurement of the primary galactic cosmic ray species energy dependence in the regime beyond approx. 500 GeV/a is difficult due to the low flux and the limitations of energy measurement techniques. However, such observations are essential to resolve several questions of current interest such as: Is the enrichment of heavy species (Z greater that or equal to 6) cosmic rays first reported at higher energies by the proton satellite' and then later at lower energies real? The results from a previous deployment of the reduced opening angle technique are inconclusive but the authors do point to limitations in the previous techniques. Another intriguing puzzle is the energy dependence of silicon cosmic rays. Two independent experiments using different experimental techniques indicate that silicon is under-abundant. At present the observation is limited by statistics; it could still be a three sigma fluctuation. However, if confirmed the current models of acceleration and propagation which are species independent are seriously inadequate. To progress further the species and energy dependence must be accurately measured in a manner that is free from systematic uncertainty. In this report we show that the reduced opening angle method offers a simple and relatively inexpensive method to answer these questions. First we present the physics of the reduced opening angle and indicate the expected energy and charge resolution. The proposed detector design is then presented followed by the expected performance. Where ever possible simple phenomenological expressions that allow 'back of the envelope' estimates are given. More details are presented in the appendices. The limit of the energy resolution and the expected event rates for iron cosmic rays are calculated. Salient points are summarized in the conclusions.
In 1912 Victor Franz Hess made the revolutionary discovery that ionizing radiation is incident upon the Earth from outer space. He showed with ground-based and balloon-borne detectors that the intensity of the radiation did not change significantly between day and night. Consequently, the sun could not be regarded as the sources of this radiation and the question of its origin remained unanswered. Today, almost one hundred years later the question of the origin of the cosmic radiation still remains a mystery.Hess' discovery has given an enormous impetus to large areas of science, in particular to physics, and has played a major role in the formation of our current understanding of universal evolution. For example, the development of new fields of research such as elementary particle physics, modern astrophysics and cosmology are direct consequences of this discovery. Over the years the field of cosmic ray research has evolved in various directions: Firstly, the field of particle physics that was initiated by the discovery of many so-called elementary particles in the cosmic radiation. There is a strong trend from the accelerator physics community to reenter the field of cosmic ray physics, now under the name of astroparticle physics. Secondly, an important branch of cosmic ray physics that has rapidly evolved in conjunction with space exploration concerns the low energy portion of the cosmic ray spectrum. Thirdly, the branch of research that is concerned with the origin, acceleration and propagation of the cosmic radiation represents a great challenge for astrophysics, astronomy and cosmology. Presently very popular fields of research have rapidly evolved, such as high-energy gamma ray and neutrino astronomy. In addition, high-energy neutrino astronomy may soon initiate as a likely spin-off neutrino tomography of the Earth and thus open a unique new branch of geophysical research of the interior of the Earth. Finally, of considerable interest are the biological and medical aspects of the cosmic radiation because of it ionizing character and the inevitable irradiation to which we are exposed. This book is a reference manual for researchers and students of cosmic ray physics and associated fields and phenomena. It is not intended to be a tutorial. However, the book contains an adequate amount of background materials that its content should be useful to a broad community of scientists and professionals. The present book contains chiefly a data collection in compact form that covers the cosmic radiation in the vicinity of the Earth, in the Earth's atmosphere, at sea level and underground. Included are predominantly experimental but also theoretical data. In addition the book contains related data, definitions and important relations. The aim of this book is to offer the reader in a single volume a readily available comprehensive set of data that will save him the need of frequent time consuming literature searches.
This book, like the first and second editions, addresses the fundamental principles of interaction between radiation and matter and the principles of particle detection and detectors in a wide scope of fields, from low to high energy, including space physics and medical environment. It provides abundant information about the processes of electromagnetic and hadronic energy deposition in matter, detecting systems, performance of detectors and their optimization. The third edition includes additional material covering, for instance: mechanisms of energy loss like the inverse Compton scattering, corrections due to the LandauOCoPomeranchukOCoMigdal effect, an extended relativistic treatment of nucleusOConucleus screened Coulomb scattering, and transport of charged particles inside the heliosphere. Furthermore, the displacement damage (NIEL) in semiconductors has been revisited to account for recent experimental data and more comprehensive comparisons with results previously obtained. This book will be of great use to graduate students and final-year undergraduates as a reference and supplement for courses in particle, astroparticle, space physics and instrumentation. A part of the book is directed toward courses in medical physics. The book can also be used by researchers in experimental particle physics at low, medium, and high energy who are dealing with instrumentation."