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In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, European settlers from diverse backgrounds transformed Ontario. By 1881, German speakers made up almost ten per cent of the province’s population and the German language was spoken in businesses, public schools, churches, and homes. German speakers in Ontario – children, parents, teachers, and religious groups – used their everyday practices and community institutions to claim a space for bilingualism and religious diversity within Canadian society. In The Boundaries of Ethnicity Benjamin Bryce considers what it meant to be German in Ontario between 1880 and 1930. He explores how the children of immigrants acquired and negotiated the German language and how religious communities relied on language to reinforce social networks. For the Germans who make up the core of this study, the distinction between insiders and outsiders was often unclear. Boundaries were crossed as often as they were respected. German ethnicity in this period was fluid, and increasingly interventionist government policies and the dynamics of generational change also shaped the boundaries of ethnicity. German speakers, together with immigrants from other countries and Canadians of different ethnic backgrounds, created a framework that defined relationships between the state, the public sphere, ethnic spaces, family, and religion in Canada that would persist through the twentieth century. The Boundaries of Ethnicity uncovers some of the origins of Canadian multiculturalism and government attempts to manage this diversity.
Before independence from Mexico in 1836, the Catholic faith was the only religion settlers in Texas, known as Texians, could legally practice. To acquire land in Texas, then a part of Mexico known as Coahuila y Tejas, one had to be a member of the Roman Catholic Church or agree to convert to Catholicism. Although a few Protestant church buildings were erected before Texas's independence in 1836, most were erected after 1836 because of Mexico's strict laws prohibiting and often severe punishment for practicing any faith other than Catholicism. The few Protestant church buildings that were erected prior to Texas independence were usually erected along the margins of Texas in the more remote regions of North and East Texas, distancing themselves from Mexico's center of government in San Antonio. The first Protestant church established in Texas that has been in continuous service was organized by the Reverend Milton Estill in 1833 as the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in Old Shiloh, a small community located about four miles north of Clarksville. In 1848, the Shiloh Cumberland Presbyterian Congregation joined with the Presbyterian congregation in Clarksville to become the First Presbyterian Church, Clarksville. The First Presbyterian Congregation in Clarksville is recognized as the oldest Protestant church in continuous service in the state of Texas. After Texians won their independence in 1836, religious congregations began to meet openly and to build houses of worship. Most of these early church buildings were poorly built and did not survive the ravages of time. Eventually, stronger buildings were erected. But even then, with open fireplaces and wood-burning stoves providing heat and candles or kerosene lanterns providing the primary source of light, church buildings were often destroyed by accidental fires. In addition, with time, congregations often outgrew their vintage church buildings or could no longer afford the high cost of maintaining the older, outdated buildings. As a result, congregations abandoned them to erect larger and often more elaborate edifices. Once abandoned, the old church buildings were razed or, if left standing, rapidly deteriorated. Over the past twelve years, my wife and I have visited and photographed almost one thousand historic churches in Texas. Photographing these historic church buildings and learning about the pioneers that often at great risk founded and maintained them has been a project of love. Visiting these historic churches and meeting the people that maintain them today has been inspirational.
The Houses Lutherans Built Large groups of German immigrants began arriving in Cole County in the 1830s. By 1843, thirty-seven of them banded together to establish the first Lutheran church in the county--Zion Church. The following year, the second Lutheran church was founded near Taos, while the pastors at Zion helped establish a third congregation in Lohman in the 1850s. Doctrinal disputes inspired members to leave the church in Lohman and establish a new Lutheran congregation in Stringtown after the Civil War. Over the generations, Zion--the "Mother Church"--disbanded but other Lutheran congregations developed in Centertown, Honey Creek, Russellville, Jefferson City and near Brazito. Local author Jeremy Amick details the rich history of Lutherans in Cole County.
The Encyclopedia of Northern Kentucky is the authoritative reference on the people, places, history, and rich heritage of the Northern Kentucky region. The encyclopedia defines an overlooked region of more than 450,000 residents and celebrates its contributions to agriculture, art, architecture, commerce, education, entertainment, literature, medicine, military, science, and sports. Often referred to as one of the points of the "Golden Triangle" because of its proximity to Lexington and Louisville, Northern Kentucky is made up of eleven counties along the Ohio River: Boone, Bracken, Campbell, Carroll, Gallatin, Grant, Kenton, Mason, Owen, Pendleton, and Robertson. With more than 2,000 entries, 170 images, and 13 maps, this encyclopedia will help readers appreciate the region's unique history and culture, as well as the role of Northern Kentucky in the larger history of the Commonwealth of Kentucky and the nation. • Describes the "Golden Triangle" of Kentucky, an economically prosperous area with high employment, investment, and job-creation rates • Contains entries on institutions of higher learning, including Northern Kentucky University, Thomas More College, and three community and technical colleges • Details the historic cities of Covington, Newport, Bellevue, Dayton, and Ludlow and their renaissance along the shore of the Ohio River • Illustrates the importance of the Cincinnati / Northern Kentucky International Airport as well as major corporations such as Ashland, Fidelity Investments, Omnicare, Toyota North America, and United States Playing Card